zig/lib/std/Io.zig

//! A cross-platform interface that abstracts all I/O operations and
//! concurrency. It includes:
//! * file system
//! * networking
//! * processes
//! * time and sleeping
//! * randomness
//! * async, await, concurrent, and cancel
//! * concurrent queues
//! * wait groups and select
//! * mutexes, futexes, events, and conditions
//! * memory mapped files
//! This interface allows programmers to write optimal, reusable code while
//! participating in these operations.
const Io = @This();

const builtin = @import("builtin");

const std = @import("std.zig");
const math = std.math;
const assert = std.debug.assert;
const Allocator = std.mem.Allocator;
const Alignment = std.mem.Alignment;

userdata: ?*anyopaque,
vtable: *const VTable,

pub const Threaded = @import("Io/Threaded.zig");

pub const fiber = @import("Io/fiber.zig");
pub const Evented = if (fiber.supported) switch (builtin.os.tag) {
    .linux => Uring,
    .dragonfly, .freebsd, .netbsd, .openbsd => Kqueue,
    .driverkit, .ios, .maccatalyst, .macos, .tvos, .visionos, .watchos => Dispatch,
    else => void,
} else void; // context-switching code not implemented yet
pub const Dispatch = @import("Io/Dispatch.zig");
pub const Kqueue = @import("Io/Kqueue.zig");
pub const Uring = @import("Io/Uring.zig");

pub const Reader = @import("Io/Reader.zig");
pub const Writer = @import("Io/Writer.zig");
pub const net = @import("Io/net.zig");
pub const Dir = @import("Io/Dir.zig");
pub const File = @import("Io/File.zig");
pub const Terminal = @import("Io/Terminal.zig");

pub const RwLock = @import("Io/RwLock.zig");
pub const Semaphore = @import("Io/Semaphore.zig");

pub const VTable = struct {
    crashHandler: *const fn (?*anyopaque) void,

    /// If it returns `null` it means `result` has been already populated and
    /// `await` will be a no-op.
    ///
    /// When this function returns non-null, the implementation guarantees that
    /// a unit of concurrency has been assigned to the returned task.
    ///
    /// Thread-safe.
    async: *const fn (
        /// Corresponds to `Io.userdata`.
        userdata: ?*anyopaque,
        /// The pointer of this slice is an "eager" result value.
        /// The length is the size in bytes of the result type.
        /// This pointer's lifetime expires directly after the call to this function.
        result: []u8,
        result_alignment: std.mem.Alignment,
        /// Copied and then passed to `start`.
        context: []const u8,
        context_alignment: std.mem.Alignment,
        start: *const fn (context: *const anyopaque, result: *anyopaque) void,
    ) ?*AnyFuture,
    /// Thread-safe.
    concurrent: *const fn (
        /// Corresponds to `Io.userdata`.
        userdata: ?*anyopaque,
        result_len: usize,
        result_alignment: std.mem.Alignment,
        /// Copied and then passed to `start`.
        context: []const u8,
        context_alignment: std.mem.Alignment,
        start: *const fn (context: *const anyopaque, result: *anyopaque) void,
    ) ConcurrentError!*AnyFuture,
    /// This function is only called when `async` returns a non-null value.
    ///
    /// Thread-safe.
    await: *const fn (
        /// Corresponds to `Io.userdata`.
        userdata: ?*anyopaque,
        /// The same value that was returned from `async`.
        any_future: *AnyFuture,
        /// Points to a buffer where the result is written.
        /// The length is equal to size in bytes of result type.
        result: []u8,
        result_alignment: std.mem.Alignment,
    ) void,
    /// Equivalent to `await` but initiates cancel request.
    ///
    /// This function is only called when `async` returns a non-null value.
    ///
    /// Thread-safe.
    cancel: *const fn (
        /// Corresponds to `Io.userdata`.
        userdata: ?*anyopaque,
        /// The same value that was returned from `async`.
        any_future: *AnyFuture,
        /// Points to a buffer where the result is written.
        /// The length is equal to size in bytes of result type.
        result: []u8,
        result_alignment: std.mem.Alignment,
    ) void,

    /// When this function returns, implementation guarantees that `start` has
    /// either already been called, or a unit of concurrency has been assigned
    /// to the task of calling the function.
    ///
    /// Thread-safe.
    groupAsync: *const fn (
        /// Corresponds to `Io.userdata`.
        userdata: ?*anyopaque,
        /// Owner of the spawned async task.
        group: *Group,
        /// Copied and then passed to `start`.
        context: []const u8,
        context_alignment: std.mem.Alignment,
        start: *const fn (context: *const anyopaque) void,
    ) void,
    /// Thread-safe.
    groupConcurrent: *const fn (
        /// Corresponds to `Io.userdata`.
        userdata: ?*anyopaque,
        /// Owner of the spawned async task.
        group: *Group,
        /// Copied and then passed to `start`.
        context: []const u8,
        context_alignment: std.mem.Alignment,
        start: *const fn (context: *const anyopaque) void,
    ) ConcurrentError!void,
    groupAwait: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *Group, token: *anyopaque) Cancelable!void,
    groupCancel: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *Group, token: *anyopaque) void,

    recancel: *const fn (?*anyopaque) void,
    swapCancelProtection: *const fn (?*anyopaque, new: CancelProtection) CancelProtection,
    checkCancel: *const fn (?*anyopaque) Cancelable!void,

    futexWait: *const fn (?*anyopaque, ptr: *const u32, expected: u32, Timeout) Cancelable!void,
    futexWaitUncancelable: *const fn (?*anyopaque, ptr: *const u32, expected: u32) void,
    futexWake: *const fn (?*anyopaque, ptr: *const u32, max_waiters: u32) void,

    operate: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Operation) Cancelable!Operation.Result,
    batchAwaitAsync: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *Batch) Cancelable!void,
    batchAwaitConcurrent: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *Batch, Timeout) Batch.AwaitConcurrentError!void,
    batchCancel: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *Batch) void,

    dirCreateDir: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, []const u8, Dir.Permissions) Dir.CreateDirError!void,
    dirCreateDirPath: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, []const u8, Dir.Permissions) Dir.CreateDirPathError!Dir.CreatePathStatus,
    dirCreateDirPathOpen: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, []const u8, Dir.Permissions, Dir.OpenOptions) Dir.CreateDirPathOpenError!Dir,
    dirOpenDir: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, []const u8, Dir.OpenOptions) Dir.OpenError!Dir,
    dirStat: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir) Dir.StatError!Dir.Stat,
    dirStatFile: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, []const u8, Dir.StatFileOptions) Dir.StatFileError!File.Stat,
    dirAccess: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, []const u8, Dir.AccessOptions) Dir.AccessError!void,
    dirCreateFile: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, []const u8, Dir.CreateFileOptions) File.OpenError!File,
    dirCreateFileAtomic: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, []const u8, Dir.CreateFileAtomicOptions) Dir.CreateFileAtomicError!File.Atomic,
    dirOpenFile: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, []const u8, Dir.OpenFileOptions) File.OpenError!File,
    dirClose: *const fn (?*anyopaque, []const Dir) void,
    dirRead: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *Dir.Reader, []Dir.Entry) Dir.Reader.Error!usize,
    dirRealPath: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, out_buffer: []u8) Dir.RealPathError!usize,
    dirRealPathFile: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, path_name: []const u8, out_buffer: []u8) Dir.RealPathFileError!usize,
    dirDeleteFile: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, []const u8) Dir.DeleteFileError!void,
    dirDeleteDir: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, []const u8) Dir.DeleteDirError!void,
    dirRename: *const fn (?*anyopaque, old_dir: Dir, old_sub_path: []const u8, new_dir: Dir, new_sub_path: []const u8) Dir.RenameError!void,
    dirRenamePreserve: *const fn (?*anyopaque, old_dir: Dir, old_sub_path: []const u8, new_dir: Dir, new_sub_path: []const u8) Dir.RenamePreserveError!void,
    dirSymLink: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, target_path: []const u8, sym_link_path: []const u8, Dir.SymLinkFlags) Dir.SymLinkError!void,
    dirReadLink: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, sub_path: []const u8, buffer: []u8) Dir.ReadLinkError!usize,
    dirSetOwner: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, ?File.Uid, ?File.Gid) Dir.SetOwnerError!void,
    dirSetFileOwner: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, []const u8, ?File.Uid, ?File.Gid, Dir.SetFileOwnerOptions) Dir.SetFileOwnerError!void,
    dirSetPermissions: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, Dir.Permissions) Dir.SetPermissionsError!void,
    dirSetFilePermissions: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, []const u8, File.Permissions, Dir.SetFilePermissionsOptions) Dir.SetFilePermissionsError!void,
    dirSetTimestamps: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, []const u8, Dir.SetTimestampsOptions) Dir.SetTimestampsError!void,
    dirHardLink: *const fn (?*anyopaque, old_dir: Dir, old_sub_path: []const u8, new_dir: Dir, new_sub_path: []const u8, Dir.HardLinkOptions) Dir.HardLinkError!void,

    fileStat: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File) File.StatError!File.Stat,
    fileLength: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File) File.LengthError!u64,
    fileClose: *const fn (?*anyopaque, []const File) void,
    fileWritePositional: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, header: []const u8, data: []const []const u8, splat: usize, offset: u64) File.WritePositionalError!usize,
    fileWriteFileStreaming: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, header: []const u8, *Io.File.Reader, Io.Limit) File.Writer.WriteFileError!usize,
    fileWriteFilePositional: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, header: []const u8, *Io.File.Reader, Io.Limit, offset: u64) File.WriteFilePositionalError!usize,
    /// Returns 0 if reading at or past the end.
    fileReadPositional: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, data: []const []u8, offset: u64) File.ReadPositionalError!usize,
    fileSeekBy: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, relative_offset: i64) File.SeekError!void,
    fileSeekTo: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, absolute_offset: u64) File.SeekError!void,
    fileSync: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File) File.SyncError!void,
    fileIsTty: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File) Cancelable!bool,
    fileEnableAnsiEscapeCodes: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File) File.EnableAnsiEscapeCodesError!void,
    fileSupportsAnsiEscapeCodes: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File) Cancelable!bool,
    fileSetLength: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, u64) File.SetLengthError!void,
    fileSetOwner: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, ?File.Uid, ?File.Gid) File.SetOwnerError!void,
    fileSetPermissions: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, File.Permissions) File.SetPermissionsError!void,
    fileSetTimestamps: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, File.SetTimestampsOptions) File.SetTimestampsError!void,
    fileLock: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, File.Lock) File.LockError!void,
    fileTryLock: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, File.Lock) File.LockError!bool,
    fileUnlock: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File) void,
    fileDowngradeLock: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File) File.DowngradeLockError!void,
    fileRealPath: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, out_buffer: []u8) File.RealPathError!usize,
    fileHardLink: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, Dir, []const u8, File.HardLinkOptions) File.HardLinkError!void,

    fileMemoryMapCreate: *const fn (?*anyopaque, File, File.MemoryMap.CreateOptions) File.MemoryMap.CreateError!File.MemoryMap,
    fileMemoryMapDestroy: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *File.MemoryMap) void,
    fileMemoryMapSetLength: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *File.MemoryMap, usize) File.MemoryMap.SetLengthError!void,
    fileMemoryMapRead: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *File.MemoryMap) File.ReadPositionalError!void,
    fileMemoryMapWrite: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *File.MemoryMap) File.WritePositionalError!void,

    processExecutableOpen: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir.OpenFileOptions) std.process.OpenExecutableError!File,
    processExecutablePath: *const fn (?*anyopaque, buffer: []u8) std.process.ExecutablePathError!usize,
    lockStderr: *const fn (?*anyopaque, ?Terminal.Mode) Cancelable!LockedStderr,
    tryLockStderr: *const fn (?*anyopaque, ?Terminal.Mode) Cancelable!?LockedStderr,
    unlockStderr: *const fn (?*anyopaque) void,
    processCurrentPath: *const fn (?*anyopaque, buffer: []u8) std.process.CurrentPathError!usize,
    processSetCurrentDir: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir) std.process.SetCurrentDirError!void,
    processSetCurrentPath: *const fn (?*anyopaque, []const u8) std.process.SetCurrentPathError!void,
    processReplace: *const fn (?*anyopaque, std.process.ReplaceOptions) std.process.ReplaceError,
    processReplacePath: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, std.process.ReplaceOptions) std.process.ReplaceError,
    processSpawn: *const fn (?*anyopaque, std.process.SpawnOptions) std.process.SpawnError!std.process.Child,
    processSpawnPath: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Dir, std.process.SpawnOptions) std.process.SpawnError!std.process.Child,
    childWait: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *std.process.Child) std.process.Child.WaitError!std.process.Child.Term,
    childKill: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *std.process.Child) void,

    progressParentFile: *const fn (?*anyopaque) std.Progress.ParentFileError!File,

    now: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Clock) Timestamp,
    clockResolution: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Clock) Clock.ResolutionError!Duration,
    sleep: *const fn (?*anyopaque, Timeout) Cancelable!void,

    random: *const fn (?*anyopaque, buffer: []u8) void,
    randomSecure: *const fn (?*anyopaque, buffer: []u8) RandomSecureError!void,

    netListenIp: *const fn (?*anyopaque, address: *const net.IpAddress, net.IpAddress.ListenOptions) net.IpAddress.ListenError!net.Socket,
    netAccept: *const fn (?*anyopaque, server: net.Socket.Handle, options: net.Server.AcceptOptions) net.Server.AcceptError!net.Socket,
    netBindIp: *const fn (?*anyopaque, address: *const net.IpAddress, options: net.IpAddress.BindOptions) net.IpAddress.BindError!net.Socket,
    netConnectIp: *const fn (?*anyopaque, address: *const net.IpAddress, options: net.IpAddress.ConnectOptions) net.IpAddress.ConnectError!net.Socket,
    netListenUnix: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *const net.UnixAddress, net.UnixAddress.ListenOptions) net.UnixAddress.ListenError!net.Socket.Handle,
    netConnectUnix: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *const net.UnixAddress) net.UnixAddress.ConnectError!net.Socket.Handle,
    netSocketCreatePair: *const fn (?*anyopaque, net.Socket.CreatePairOptions) net.Socket.CreatePairError![2]net.Socket,
    netSend: *const fn (?*anyopaque, net.Socket.Handle, []net.OutgoingMessage, net.SendFlags) struct { ?net.Socket.SendError, usize },
    netWrite: *const fn (?*anyopaque, dest: net.Socket.Handle, header: []const u8, data: []const []const u8, splat: usize) net.Stream.Writer.Error!usize,
    netWriteFile: *const fn (?*anyopaque, net.Socket.Handle, header: []const u8, *Io.File.Reader, Io.Limit) net.Stream.Writer.WriteFileError!usize,
    netClose: *const fn (?*anyopaque, handle: []const net.Socket.Handle) void,
    netShutdown: *const fn (?*anyopaque, handle: net.Socket.Handle, how: net.ShutdownHow) net.ShutdownError!void,
    netInterfaceNameResolve: *const fn (?*anyopaque, *const net.Interface.Name) net.Interface.Name.ResolveError!net.Interface,
    netInterfaceName: *const fn (?*anyopaque, net.Interface) net.Interface.NameError!net.Interface.Name,
    netLookup: *const fn (?*anyopaque, net.HostName, *Queue(net.HostName.LookupResult), net.HostName.LookupOptions) net.HostName.LookupError!void,
};

pub const Operation = union(enum) {
    file_read_streaming: FileReadStreaming,
    file_write_streaming: FileWriteStreaming,
    /// On Windows this is NtDeviceIoControlFile. On POSIX this is ioctl. On
    /// other systems this tag is unreachable.
    device_io_control: DeviceIoControl,
    net_receive: NetReceive,
    net_read: NetRead,

    pub const Tag = @typeInfo(Operation).@"union".tag_type.?;

    /// May return 0 reads which is different than `error.EndOfStream`.
    pub const FileReadStreaming = struct {
        file: File,
        data: []const []u8,

        pub const Error = UnendingError || error{EndOfStream};
        pub const UnendingError = error{
            InputOutput,
            SystemResources,
            /// Trying to read a directory file descriptor as if it were a file.
            IsDir,
            ConnectionResetByPeer,
            /// File was not opened with read capability.
            NotOpenForReading,
            SocketUnconnected,
            /// Non-blocking has been enabled, and reading from the file descriptor
            /// would block.
            WouldBlock,
            /// In WASI, this error occurs when the file descriptor does
            /// not hold the required rights to read from it.
            AccessDenied,
            /// Unable to read file due to lock. Depending on the `Io` implementation,
            /// reading from a locked file may return this error, or may ignore the
            /// lock.
            LockViolation,
        } || Io.UnexpectedError;

        pub const Result = Error!usize;
    };

    pub const FileWriteStreaming = struct {
        file: File,
        header: []const u8 = &.{},
        data: []const []const u8,
        splat: usize = 1,

        pub const Error = error{
            DiskQuota,
            FileTooBig,
            InputOutput,
            NoSpaceLeft,
            DeviceBusy,
            /// File descriptor does not hold the required rights to write to it.
            AccessDenied,
            PermissionDenied,
            /// File is an unconnected socket, or closed its read end.
            BrokenPipe,
            /// Insufficient kernel memory to read from in_fd.
            SystemResources,
            NotOpenForWriting,
            /// The process cannot access the file because another process has locked
            /// a portion of the file. Windows-only.
            LockViolation,
            /// Non-blocking has been enabled and this operation would block.
            WouldBlock,
            /// This error occurs when a device gets disconnected before or mid-flush
            /// while it's being written to - errno(6): No such device or address.
            NoDevice,
            FileBusy,
        } || Io.UnexpectedError;

        pub const Result = Error!usize;
    };

    pub const DeviceIoControl = switch (builtin.os.tag) {
        .wasi => noreturn,
        .windows => struct {
            file: File,
            code: std.os.windows.CTL_CODE,
            in: []const u8 = &.{},
            out: []u8 = &.{},

            pub const Result = std.os.windows.IO_STATUS_BLOCK;
        },
        else => struct {
            file: File,
            /// Device-dependent operation code.
            code: u32,
            arg: ?*anyopaque,

            /// Device and operation dependent result. Negative values are
            /// negative errno.
            pub const Result = i32;
        },
    };

    pub const NetReceive = struct {
        socket_handle: net.Socket.Handle,
        message_buffer: []net.IncomingMessage,
        data_buffer: []u8,
        flags: net.ReceiveFlags,

        pub const Error = error{
            /// Insufficient memory or other resource internal to the operating system.
            SystemResources,
            /// Per-process limit on the number of open file descriptors has been reached.
            ProcessFdQuotaExceeded,
            /// System-wide limit on the total number of open files has been reached.
            SystemFdQuotaExceeded,
            /// Local end has been shut down on a connection-oriented socket, or
            /// the socket was never connected.
            SocketUnconnected,
            /// The socket type requires that message be sent atomically, and the
            /// size of the message to be sent made this impossible. The message
            /// was not transmitted, or was partially transmitted.
            MessageOversize,
            /// Network connection was unexpectedly closed by sender.
            ConnectionResetByPeer,
            /// The local network interface used to reach the destination is offline.
            NetworkDown,
            /// A connectionless packet was previously sent successfully,
            /// however, it was not received because no service is operating at
            /// the destination port of the transport on the remote system.
            /// This caused an ICMP port unreachable packet to be returned to
            /// the OS where it was queued up to be reported at the next call
            /// to send or receive on the bound socket.
            PortUnreachable,
        } || Io.UnexpectedError;

        pub const Result = struct { ?net.Socket.ReceiveError, usize };
    };

    pub const NetRead = struct {
        socket_handle: net.Socket.Handle,
        data: [][]u8,

        pub const Error = error{
            SystemResources,
            ConnectionResetByPeer,
            SocketUnconnected,
            /// The file descriptor does not hold the required rights to read
            /// from it.
            AccessDenied,
            NetworkDown,
        } || Io.UnexpectedError;

        pub const Result = Error!usize;
    };

    pub const Result = Result: {
        const operation_fields = @typeInfo(Operation).@"union".fields;
        var field_names: [operation_fields.len][]const u8 = undefined;
        var field_types: [operation_fields.len]type = undefined;
        for (operation_fields, &field_names, &field_types) |field, *field_name, *field_type| {
            field_name.* = field.name;
            field_type.* = if (field.type == noreturn) noreturn else field.type.Result;
        }
        break :Result @Union(.auto, Tag, &field_names, &field_types, &@splat(.{}));
    };

    pub const Storage = union {
        unused: List.DoubleNode,
        submission: Submission,
        pending: Pending,
        completion: Completion,

        pub const Submission = struct {
            node: List.SingleNode,
            operation: Operation,
        };

        pub const Pending = struct {
            node: List.DoubleNode,
            tag: Tag,
            userdata: Userdata align(@max(@alignOf(usize), 4)),

            pub const Userdata = [7]usize;
        };

        pub const Completion = struct {
            node: List.SingleNode,
            result: Result,
        };
    };

    pub const OptionalIndex = enum(u32) {
        none = std.math.maxInt(u32),
        _,

        pub fn fromIndex(i: usize) OptionalIndex {
            const oi: OptionalIndex = @enumFromInt(i);
            assert(oi != .none);
            return oi;
        }

        pub fn toIndex(oi: OptionalIndex) u32 {
            assert(oi != .none);
            return @intFromEnum(oi);
        }
    };
    pub const List = struct {
        head: OptionalIndex,
        tail: OptionalIndex,

        pub const empty: List = .{ .head = .none, .tail = .none };

        pub const SingleNode = struct { next: OptionalIndex };
        pub const DoubleNode = struct { prev: OptionalIndex, next: OptionalIndex };
    };
};

/// Performs one `Operation`.
pub fn operate(io: Io, operation: Operation) Cancelable!Operation.Result {
    return io.vtable.operate(io.userdata, operation);
}

pub const OperateTimeoutError = Cancelable || Timeout.Error || ConcurrentError;

/// Performs one `Operation` with provided `timeout`.
pub fn operateTimeout(io: Io, operation: Operation, timeout: Timeout) OperateTimeoutError!Operation.Result {
    var storage: [1]Operation.Storage = undefined;
    var batch: Batch = .init(&storage);
    batch.addAt(0, operation);
    try batch.awaitConcurrent(io, timeout);
    const completion = batch.next().?;
    assert(completion.index == 0);
    return completion.result;
}

/// Submits many operations together without waiting for all of them to
/// complete.
///
/// This is a low-level abstraction based on `Operation`. For a higher
/// level API that operates on `Future`, see `Select` and `Group`.
pub const Batch = struct {
    storage: []Operation.Storage,
    unused: Operation.List,
    submitted: Operation.List,
    pending: Operation.List,
    completed: Operation.List,
    userdata: ?*anyopaque align(@max(@alignOf(?*anyopaque), 4)),

    /// After calling this, it is safe to unconditionally defer a call to
    /// `cancel`. `storage` is a pre-allocated buffer of undefined memory that
    /// determines the maximum number of active operations that can be
    /// submitted via `add` and `addAt`.
    pub fn init(storage: []Operation.Storage) Batch {
        var prev: Operation.OptionalIndex = .none;
        for (storage, 0..) |*operation, index| {
            operation.* = .{ .unused = .{ .prev = prev, .next = .fromIndex(index + 1) } };
            prev = .fromIndex(index);
        }
        storage[storage.len - 1].unused.next = .none;
        return .{
            .storage = storage,
            .unused = .{
                .head = .fromIndex(0),
                .tail = .fromIndex(storage.len - 1),
            },
            .submitted = .empty,
            .pending = .empty,
            .completed = .empty,
            .userdata = null,
        };
    }

    /// Adds an operation to be performed at the next await call.
    /// Returns the index that will be returned by `next` after the operation completes.
    /// Asserts that no more than `storage.len` operations are active at a time.
    pub fn add(batch: *Batch, operation: Operation) u32 {
        const index = batch.unused.head.toIndex();
        batch.addAt(index, operation);
        return index;
    }

    /// Adds an operation to be performed at the next await call.
    /// After the operation completes, `next` will return `index`.
    /// Asserts that the operation at `index` is not active.
    pub fn addAt(batch: *Batch, index: u32, operation: Operation) void {
        const storage = &batch.storage[index];
        const unused = storage.unused;
        switch (unused.prev) {
            .none => batch.unused.head = unused.next,
            else => |prev_index| batch.storage[prev_index.toIndex()].unused.next = unused.next,
        }
        switch (unused.next) {
            .none => batch.unused.tail = unused.prev,
            else => |next_index| batch.storage[next_index.toIndex()].unused.prev = unused.prev,
        }

        switch (batch.submitted.tail) {
            .none => batch.submitted.head = .fromIndex(index),
            else => |tail_index| batch.storage[tail_index.toIndex()].submission.node.next = .fromIndex(index),
        }
        storage.* = .{ .submission = .{ .node = .{ .next = .none }, .operation = operation } };
        batch.submitted.tail = .fromIndex(index);
    }

    pub const Completion = struct {
        /// The element within the provided operation storage that completed.
        /// `addAt` can be used to re-arm the `Batch` using this `index`.
        index: u32,
        /// The return value of the operation.
        result: Operation.Result,
    };

    /// After calling `awaitAsync`, `awaitConcurrent`, or `cancel`, this
    /// function iterates over the completed operations.
    ///
    /// Each completion returned from this function dequeues from the `Batch`.
    /// It is not required to dequeue all completions before awaiting again.
    pub fn next(batch: *Batch) ?Completion {
        const index = batch.completed.head;
        if (index == .none) return null;
        const storage = &batch.storage[index.toIndex()];
        const completion = storage.completion;
        const next_index = completion.node.next;
        batch.completed.head = next_index;
        if (next_index == .none) batch.completed.tail = .none;

        const tail_index = batch.unused.tail;
        switch (tail_index) {
            .none => batch.unused.head = index,
            else => batch.storage[tail_index.toIndex()].unused.next = index,
        }
        storage.* = .{ .unused = .{ .prev = tail_index, .next = .none } };
        batch.unused.tail = index;
        return .{ .index = index.toIndex(), .result = completion.result };
    }

    /// Waits for at least one of the submitted operations to complete. After
    /// this function returns the completed operations can be iterated with
    /// `next`.
    ///
    /// This function provides opportunity for the implementation to introduce
    /// concurrency into the batched operations, but unlike `awaitConcurrent`,
    /// does not require it, and therefore cannot fail with
    /// `error.ConcurrencyUnavailable`.
    pub fn awaitAsync(batch: *Batch, io: Io) Cancelable!void {
        return io.vtable.batchAwaitAsync(io.userdata, batch);
    }

    pub const AwaitConcurrentError = ConcurrentError || Cancelable || Timeout.Error;

    /// Waits for at least one of the submitted operations to complete. After
    /// this function returns the completed operations can be iterated with
    /// `next`.
    ///
    /// Unlike `awaitAsync`, this function requires the implementation to
    /// perform the operations concurrently and therefore can fail with
    /// `error.ConcurrencyUnavailable`.
    pub fn awaitConcurrent(batch: *Batch, io: Io, timeout: Timeout) AwaitConcurrentError!void {
        return io.vtable.batchAwaitConcurrent(io.userdata, batch, timeout);
    }

    /// Requests all pending operations to be interrupted, then waits for all
    /// pending operations to complete. After this returns, the `Batch` is in a
    /// well-defined state, ready to be iterated with `next`. Successfully
    /// canceled operations will be absent from the iteration. Some operations
    /// may have successfully completed regardless of the cancel request and
    /// will appear in the iteration.
    pub fn cancel(batch: *Batch, io: Io) void {
        { // abort pending submissions
            var tail_index = batch.unused.tail;
            defer batch.unused.tail = tail_index;
            var index = batch.submitted.head;
            errdefer batch.submissions.head = index;
            while (index != .none) {
                const next_index = batch.storage[index.toIndex()].submission.node.next;
                switch (tail_index) {
                    .none => batch.unused.head = index,
                    else => batch.storage[tail_index.toIndex()].unused.next = index,
                }
                batch.storage[index.toIndex()] = .{ .unused = .{ .prev = tail_index, .next = .none } };
                tail_index = index;
                index = next_index;
            }
            batch.submitted = .{ .head = .none, .tail = .none };
        }
        io.vtable.batchCancel(io.userdata, batch);
        assert(batch.submitted.head == .none and batch.submitted.tail == .none);
        assert(batch.pending.head == .none and batch.pending.tail == .none);
        assert(batch.userdata == null); // that was the last chance to deallocate resources
    }
};

pub const Limit = enum(usize) {
    nothing = 0,
    unlimited = math.maxInt(usize),
    _,

    /// `math.maxInt(usize)` is interpreted to mean `.unlimited`.
    pub fn limited(n: usize) Limit {
        return @enumFromInt(n);
    }

    /// Any value grater than `math.maxInt(usize)` is interpreted to mean
    /// `.unlimited`.
    pub fn limited64(n: u64) Limit {
        return @enumFromInt(@min(n, math.maxInt(usize)));
    }

    pub fn countVec(data: []const []const u8) Limit {
        var total: usize = 0;
        for (data) |d| total += d.len;
        return .limited(total);
    }

    pub fn min(a: Limit, b: Limit) Limit {
        return @enumFromInt(@min(@intFromEnum(a), @intFromEnum(b)));
    }

    pub fn max(a: Limit, b: Limit) Limit {
        if (a == .unlimited or b == .unlimited) {
            return .unlimited;
        }

        return @enumFromInt(@max(@intFromEnum(a), @intFromEnum(b)));
    }

    pub fn minInt(l: Limit, n: usize) usize {
        return @min(n, @intFromEnum(l));
    }

    pub fn minInt64(l: Limit, n: u64) usize {
        return @min(n, @intFromEnum(l));
    }

    pub fn slice(l: Limit, s: []u8) []u8 {
        return s[0..l.minInt(s.len)];
    }

    pub fn sliceConst(l: Limit, s: []const u8) []const u8 {
        return s[0..l.minInt(s.len)];
    }

    pub fn toInt(l: Limit) ?usize {
        return switch (l) {
            else => @intFromEnum(l),
            .unlimited => null,
        };
    }

    /// Reduces a slice to account for the limit, leaving room for one extra
    /// byte above the limit, allowing for the use case of differentiating
    /// between end-of-stream and reaching the limit.
    pub fn slice1(l: Limit, non_empty_buffer: []u8) []u8 {
        assert(non_empty_buffer.len >= 1);
        return non_empty_buffer[0..@min(@intFromEnum(l) +| 1, non_empty_buffer.len)];
    }

    pub fn nonzero(l: Limit) bool {
        return l != .nothing;
    }

    /// Return a new limit reduced by `amount` or return `null` indicating
    /// limit would be exceeded.
    pub fn subtract(l: Limit, amount: usize) ?Limit {
        if (l == .unlimited) return .unlimited;
        if (amount > @intFromEnum(l)) return null;
        return @enumFromInt(@intFromEnum(l) - amount);
    }
};

pub const Cancelable = error{
    /// Caller has requested the async operation to stop.
    Canceled,
};

pub const UnexpectedError = error{
    /// The Operating System returned an undocumented error code.
    ///
    /// This error is in theory not possible, but it would be better
    /// to handle this error than to invoke undefined behavior.
    ///
    /// When this error code is observed, it usually means the Zig Standard
    /// Library needs a small patch to add the error code to the error set for
    /// the respective function.
    Unexpected,
};

pub const Clock = enum {
    /// A settable system-wide clock that measures real (i.e. wall-clock)
    /// time. This clock is affected by discontinuous jumps in the system
    /// time (e.g., if the system administrator manually changes the
    /// clock), and by frequency adjustments performed by NTP and similar
    /// applications.
    ///
    /// This clock normally counts the number of seconds since 1970-01-01
    /// 00:00:00 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) except that it ignores
    /// leap seconds; near a leap second it is typically adjusted by NTP to
    /// stay roughly in sync with UTC.
    ///
    /// Timestamps returned by implementations of this clock represent time
    /// elapsed since 1970-01-01T00:00:00Z, the POSIX/Unix epoch, ignoring
    /// leap seconds. This is colloquially known as "Unix time". If the
    /// underlying OS uses a different epoch for native timestamps (e.g.,
    /// Windows, which uses 1601-01-01) they are translated accordingly.
    real,
    /// A nonsettable system-wide clock that represents time since some
    /// unspecified point in the past.
    ///
    /// Monotonic: Guarantees that the time returned by consecutive calls
    /// will not go backwards, but successive calls may return identical
    /// (not-increased) time values.
    ///
    /// Not affected by discontinuous jumps in the system time (e.g., if
    /// the system administrator manually changes the clock), but may be
    /// affected by frequency adjustments.
    ///
    /// This clock expresses intent to **exclude time that the system is
    /// suspended**. However, implementations may be unable to satisify
    /// this, and may include that time.
    ///
    /// * On Linux, corresponds `CLOCK_MONOTONIC`.
    /// * On macOS, corresponds to `CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW`.
    awake,
    /// Identical to `awake` except it expresses intent to **include time
    /// that the system is suspended**, however, due to limitations it may
    /// behave identically to `awake`.
    ///
    /// * On Linux, corresponds `CLOCK_BOOTTIME`.
    /// * On macOS, corresponds to `CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW`.
    boot,
    /// Tracks the amount of CPU in user or kernel mode used by the calling
    /// process.
    cpu_process,
    /// Tracks the amount of CPU in user or kernel mode used by the calling
    /// thread.
    cpu_thread,

    /// This function is not cancelable because it does not block.
    ///
    /// Resolution is determined by `resolution` which may be 0 if the
    /// clock is unsupported.
    ///
    /// See also:
    /// * `Clock.Timestamp.now`
    pub fn now(clock: Clock, io: Io) Io.Timestamp {
        return io.vtable.now(io.userdata, clock);
    }

    pub const ResolutionError = error{
        ClockUnavailable,
        Unexpected,
    };

    /// Reveals the granularity of `clock`. May be zero, indicating
    /// unsupported clock.
    pub fn resolution(clock: Clock, io: Io) ResolutionError!Io.Duration {
        return io.vtable.clockResolution(io.userdata, clock);
    }

    pub const Timestamp = struct {
        raw: Io.Timestamp,
        clock: Clock,

        /// This function is not cancelable because it does not block.
        ///
        /// Resolution is determined by `resolution` which may be 0 if
        /// the clock is unsupported.
        ///
        /// See also:
        /// * `Clock.now`
        pub fn now(io: Io, clock: Clock) Clock.Timestamp {
            return .{
                .raw = io.vtable.now(io.userdata, clock),
                .clock = clock,
            };
        }

        /// Sleeps until the timestamp arrives.
        ///
        /// See also:
        /// * `Io.sleep`
        /// * `Clock.Duration.sleep`
        /// * `Timeout.sleep`
        pub fn wait(t: Clock.Timestamp, io: Io) Cancelable!void {
            return io.vtable.sleep(io.userdata, .{ .deadline = t });
        }

        pub fn durationTo(from: Clock.Timestamp, to: Clock.Timestamp) Clock.Duration {
            assert(from.clock == to.clock);
            return .{
                .raw = from.raw.durationTo(to.raw),
                .clock = from.clock,
            };
        }

        pub fn addDuration(from: Clock.Timestamp, duration: Clock.Duration) Clock.Timestamp {
            assert(from.clock == duration.clock);
            return .{
                .raw = from.raw.addDuration(duration.raw),
                .clock = from.clock,
            };
        }

        pub fn subDuration(from: Clock.Timestamp, duration: Clock.Duration) Clock.Timestamp {
            assert(from.clock == duration.clock);
            return .{
                .raw = from.raw.subDuration(duration.raw),
                .clock = from.clock,
            };
        }

        /// Resolution is determined by `resolution` which may be 0 if
        /// the clock is unsupported.
        pub fn fromNow(io: Io, duration: Clock.Duration) Clock.Timestamp {
            return .{
                .clock = duration.clock,
                .raw = duration.clock.now(io).addDuration(duration.raw),
            };
        }

        /// Resolution is determined by `resolution` which may be 0 if
        /// the clock is unsupported.
        pub fn untilNow(timestamp: Clock.Timestamp, io: Io) Clock.Duration {
            const now_ts = Clock.Timestamp.now(io, timestamp.clock);
            return timestamp.durationTo(now_ts);
        }

        /// Resolution is determined by `resolution` which may be 0 if
        /// the clock is unsupported.
        pub fn durationFromNow(timestamp: Clock.Timestamp, io: Io) Clock.Duration {
            const now_ts = timestamp.clock.now(io);
            return .{
                .clock = timestamp.clock,
                .raw = now_ts.durationTo(timestamp.raw),
            };
        }

        /// Resolution is determined by `resolution` which may be 0 if
        /// the clock is unsupported.
        pub fn toClock(t: Clock.Timestamp, io: Io, clock: Clock) Clock.Timestamp {
            if (t.clock == clock) return t;
            const now_old = t.clock.now(io);
            const now_new = clock.now(io);
            const duration = now_old.durationTo(t.raw);
            return .{
                .clock = clock,
                .raw = now_new.addDuration(duration),
            };
        }

        pub fn compare(lhs: Clock.Timestamp, op: math.CompareOperator, rhs: Clock.Timestamp) bool {
            assert(lhs.clock == rhs.clock);
            return math.compare(lhs.raw.nanoseconds, op, rhs.raw.nanoseconds);
        }
    };

    pub const Duration = struct {
        raw: Io.Duration,
        clock: Clock,

        /// Waits until a specified amount of time has passed on `clock`.
        ///
        /// See also:
        /// * `Io.sleep`
        /// * `Clock.Timestamp.wait`
        /// * `Timeout.sleep`
        pub fn sleep(duration: Clock.Duration, io: Io) Cancelable!void {
            return io.vtable.sleep(io.userdata, .{ .duration = duration });
        }
    };
};

pub const Timestamp = struct {
    nanoseconds: i96,

    pub fn now(io: Io, clock: Clock) Io.Timestamp {
        return io.vtable.now(io.userdata, clock);
    }

    pub const zero: Timestamp = .{ .nanoseconds = 0 };

    pub fn durationTo(from: Timestamp, to: Timestamp) Duration {
        return .{ .nanoseconds = to.nanoseconds - from.nanoseconds };
    }

    pub fn addDuration(from: Timestamp, duration: Duration) Timestamp {
        return .{ .nanoseconds = from.nanoseconds + duration.nanoseconds };
    }

    pub fn subDuration(from: Timestamp, duration: Duration) Timestamp {
        return .{ .nanoseconds = from.nanoseconds - duration.nanoseconds };
    }

    pub fn withClock(t: Timestamp, clock: Clock) Clock.Timestamp {
        return .{ .raw = t, .clock = clock };
    }

    pub fn fromNanoseconds(x: i96) Timestamp {
        return .{ .nanoseconds = x };
    }

    pub fn toMicroseconds(t: Timestamp) i64 {
        return @intCast(@divTrunc(t.nanoseconds, std.time.ns_per_us));
    }

    pub fn toMilliseconds(t: Timestamp) i64 {
        return @intCast(@divTrunc(t.nanoseconds, std.time.ns_per_ms));
    }

    pub fn toSeconds(t: Timestamp) i64 {
        return @intCast(@divTrunc(t.nanoseconds, std.time.ns_per_s));
    }

    pub fn toNanoseconds(t: Timestamp) i96 {
        return t.nanoseconds;
    }

    pub fn formatNumber(t: Timestamp, w: *std.Io.Writer, n: std.fmt.Number) std.Io.Writer.Error!void {
        return w.printInt(t.nanoseconds, n.mode.base() orelse 10, n.case, .{
            .precision = n.precision,
            .width = n.width,
            .alignment = n.alignment,
            .fill = n.fill,
        });
    }

    /// Resolution is determined by `Clock.resolution` which may be 0 if
    /// the clock is unsupported.
    pub fn untilNow(t: Timestamp, io: Io, clock: Clock) Duration {
        const now_ts = clock.now(io);
        return t.durationTo(now_ts);
    }
};

pub const Duration = struct {
    nanoseconds: i96,

    pub const zero: Duration = .{ .nanoseconds = 0 };
    pub const max: Duration = .{ .nanoseconds = math.maxInt(i96) };

    pub fn fromNanoseconds(x: i96) Duration {
        return .{ .nanoseconds = x };
    }

    pub fn fromMicroseconds(x: i64) Duration {
        return .{ .nanoseconds = @as(i96, x) * std.time.ns_per_us };
    }

    pub fn fromMilliseconds(x: i64) Duration {
        return .{ .nanoseconds = @as(i96, x) * std.time.ns_per_ms };
    }

    pub fn fromSeconds(x: i64) Duration {
        return .{ .nanoseconds = @as(i96, x) * std.time.ns_per_s };
    }

    pub fn toMicroseconds(d: Duration) i64 {
        return @intCast(@divTrunc(d.nanoseconds, std.time.ns_per_us));
    }

    pub fn toMilliseconds(d: Duration) i64 {
        return @intCast(@divTrunc(d.nanoseconds, std.time.ns_per_ms));
    }

    pub fn toSeconds(d: Duration) i64 {
        return @intCast(@divTrunc(d.nanoseconds, std.time.ns_per_s));
    }

    pub fn toNanoseconds(d: Duration) i96 {
        return d.nanoseconds;
    }

    /// Write number of nanoseconds according to its signed magnitude:
    /// `[#y][#w][#d][#h][#m]#[.###][n|u|m]s`
    pub fn format(duration: Duration, w: *Writer) Writer.Error!void {
        if (duration.nanoseconds < 0) try w.writeByte('-');
        return formatUnsigned(w, @abs(duration.nanoseconds));
    }

    fn formatUnsigned(w: *Writer, ns: u96) Writer.Error!void {
        var ns_remaining = ns;
        inline for (.{
            .{ .ns = 365 * std.time.ns_per_day, .sep = 'y' },
            .{ .ns = std.time.ns_per_week, .sep = 'w' },
            .{ .ns = std.time.ns_per_day, .sep = 'd' },
            .{ .ns = std.time.ns_per_hour, .sep = 'h' },
            .{ .ns = std.time.ns_per_min, .sep = 'm' },
        }) |unit| {
            if (ns_remaining >= unit.ns) {
                const units = ns_remaining / unit.ns;
                try w.printInt(units, 10, .lower, .{});
                try w.writeByte(unit.sep);
                ns_remaining -= units * unit.ns;
                if (ns_remaining == 0) return;
            }
        }

        inline for (.{
            .{ .ns = std.time.ns_per_s, .sep = "s" },
            .{ .ns = std.time.ns_per_ms, .sep = "ms" },
            .{ .ns = std.time.ns_per_us, .sep = "us" },
        }) |unit| {
            const kunits = ns_remaining * 1000 / unit.ns;
            if (kunits >= 1000) {
                try w.printInt(kunits / 1000, 10, .lower, .{});
                const frac = kunits % 1000;
                if (frac > 0) {
                    // Write up to 3 decimal places
                    var decimal_buf = [_]u8{ '.', 0, 0, 0 };
                    var inner: Writer = .fixed(decimal_buf[1..]);
                    inner.printInt(frac, 10, .lower, .{ .fill = '0', .width = 3 }) catch unreachable;
                    var end: usize = 4;
                    while (end > 1) : (end -= 1) {
                        if (decimal_buf[end - 1] != '0') break;
                    }
                    try w.writeAll(decimal_buf[0..end]);
                }
                return w.writeAll(unit.sep);
            }
        }

        try w.printInt(ns_remaining, 10, .lower, .{});
        try w.writeAll("ns");
    }

    test format {
        try testFormat("0ns", 0);
        try testFormat("1ns", 1);
        try testFormat("-1ns", -(1));
        try testFormat("999ns", std.time.ns_per_us - 1);
        try testFormat("-999ns", -(std.time.ns_per_us - 1));
        try testFormat("1us", std.time.ns_per_us);
        try testFormat("-1us", -(std.time.ns_per_us));
        try testFormat("1.45us", 1450);
        try testFormat("-1.45us", -(1450));
        try testFormat("1.5us", 3 * std.time.ns_per_us / 2);
        try testFormat("-1.5us", -(3 * std.time.ns_per_us / 2));
        try testFormat("14.5us", 14500);
        try testFormat("-14.5us", -(14500));
        try testFormat("145us", 145000);
        try testFormat("-145us", -(145000));
        try testFormat("999.999us", std.time.ns_per_ms - 1);
        try testFormat("-999.999us", -(std.time.ns_per_ms - 1));
        try testFormat("1ms", std.time.ns_per_ms + 1);
        try testFormat("-1ms", -(std.time.ns_per_ms + 1));
        try testFormat("1.5ms", 3 * std.time.ns_per_ms / 2);
        try testFormat("-1.5ms", -(3 * std.time.ns_per_ms / 2));
        try testFormat("1.11ms", 1110000);
        try testFormat("-1.11ms", -(1110000));
        try testFormat("1.111ms", 1111000);
        try testFormat("-1.111ms", -(1111000));
        try testFormat("1.111ms", 1111100);
        try testFormat("-1.111ms", -(1111100));
        try testFormat("999.999ms", std.time.ns_per_s - 1);
        try testFormat("-999.999ms", -(std.time.ns_per_s - 1));
        try testFormat("1s", std.time.ns_per_s);
        try testFormat("-1s", -(std.time.ns_per_s));
        try testFormat("59.999s", std.time.ns_per_min - 1);
        try testFormat("-59.999s", -(std.time.ns_per_min - 1));
        try testFormat("1m", std.time.ns_per_min);
        try testFormat("-1m", -(std.time.ns_per_min));
        try testFormat("1h", std.time.ns_per_hour);
        try testFormat("-1h", -(std.time.ns_per_hour));
        try testFormat("1d", std.time.ns_per_day);
        try testFormat("-1d", -(std.time.ns_per_day));
        try testFormat("1w", std.time.ns_per_week);
        try testFormat("-1w", -(std.time.ns_per_week));
        try testFormat("1y", 365 * std.time.ns_per_day);
        try testFormat("-1y", -(365 * std.time.ns_per_day));
        try testFormat("1y52w23h59m59.999s", 730 * std.time.ns_per_day - 1); // 365d = 52w1d
        try testFormat("-1y52w23h59m59.999s", -(730 * std.time.ns_per_day - 1)); // 365d = 52w1d
        try testFormat("1y1h1.001s", 365 * std.time.ns_per_day + std.time.ns_per_hour + std.time.ns_per_s + std.time.ns_per_ms);
        try testFormat("-1y1h1.001s", -(365 * std.time.ns_per_day + std.time.ns_per_hour + std.time.ns_per_s + std.time.ns_per_ms));
        try testFormat("1y1h1s", 365 * std.time.ns_per_day + std.time.ns_per_hour + std.time.ns_per_s + 999 * std.time.ns_per_us);
        try testFormat("-1y1h1s", -(365 * std.time.ns_per_day + std.time.ns_per_hour + std.time.ns_per_s + 999 * std.time.ns_per_us));
        try testFormat("1y1h999.999us", 365 * std.time.ns_per_day + std.time.ns_per_hour + std.time.ns_per_ms - 1);
        try testFormat("-1y1h999.999us", -(365 * std.time.ns_per_day + std.time.ns_per_hour + std.time.ns_per_ms - 1));
        try testFormat("1y1h1ms", 365 * std.time.ns_per_day + std.time.ns_per_hour + std.time.ns_per_ms);
        try testFormat("-1y1h1ms", -(365 * std.time.ns_per_day + std.time.ns_per_hour + std.time.ns_per_ms));
        try testFormat("1y1h1ms", 365 * std.time.ns_per_day + std.time.ns_per_hour + std.time.ns_per_ms + 1);
        try testFormat("-1y1h1ms", -(365 * std.time.ns_per_day + std.time.ns_per_hour + std.time.ns_per_ms + 1));
        try testFormat("1y1m999ns", 365 * std.time.ns_per_day + std.time.ns_per_min + 999);
        try testFormat("-1y1m999ns", -(365 * std.time.ns_per_day + std.time.ns_per_min + 999));
        try testFormat("292y24w3d23h47m16.854s", std.math.maxInt(i64));
        try testFormat("-292y24w3d23h47m16.854s", std.math.minInt(i64) + 1);
        try testFormat("-292y24w3d23h47m16.854s", std.math.minInt(i64));
    }

    fn testFormat(expected: []const u8, input: i96) !void {
        // worst case: "-XXXXXXXXXXXXXyXXwXXdXXhXXmXX.XXXs".len = 34
        var buf: [34]u8 = undefined;
        var w: Writer = .fixed(&buf);
        try w.print("{f}", .{Duration{ .nanoseconds = input }});
        try std.testing.expectEqualStrings(expected, w.buffered());
    }
};

/// Declares under what conditions an operation should return `error.Timeout`.
pub const Timeout = union(enum) {
    none,
    duration: Clock.Duration,
    deadline: Clock.Timestamp,

    pub const Error = error{Timeout};

    pub fn toTimestamp(t: Timeout, io: Io) ?Clock.Timestamp {
        return switch (t) {
            .none => null,
            .duration => |d| .fromNow(io, d),
            .deadline => |d| d,
        };
    }

    pub fn toDeadline(t: Timeout, io: Io) Timeout {
        return switch (t) {
            .none => .none,
            .duration => |d| .{ .deadline = .fromNow(io, d) },
            .deadline => |d| .{ .deadline = d },
        };
    }

    pub fn toDurationFromNow(t: Timeout, io: Io) ?Clock.Duration {
        return switch (t) {
            .none => null,
            .duration => |d| d,
            .deadline => |d| d.durationFromNow(io),
        };
    }

    /// Waits until the timeout has passed.
    ///
    /// See also:
    /// * `Io.sleep`
    /// * `Clock.Duration.sleep`
    /// * `Clock.Timestamp.wait`
    pub fn sleep(timeout: Timeout, io: Io) Cancelable!void {
        return io.vtable.sleep(io.userdata, timeout);
    }
};

pub const AnyFuture = opaque {};

pub fn Future(Result: type) type {
    return struct {
        any_future: ?*AnyFuture,
        result: Result,

        /// Equivalent to `await` but places a cancelation request. This causes the task to receive
        /// `error.Canceled` from its next "cancelation point" (if any). A cancelation point is a
        /// call to a function in `Io` which can return `error.Canceled`.
        ///
        /// After cancelation of a task is requested, only the next cancelation point in that task
        /// will return `error.Canceled`: future points will not re-signal the cancelation. As such,
        /// it is usually a bug to ignore `error.Canceled`. However, to defer handling cancelation
        /// requests, see also `recancel` and `CancelProtection`.
        ///
        /// Idempotent. Not threadsafe.
        pub fn cancel(f: *@This(), io: Io) Result {
            const any_future = f.any_future orelse return f.result;
            io.vtable.cancel(io.userdata, any_future, @ptrCast(&f.result), .of(Result));
            f.any_future = null;
            return f.result;
        }

        /// Idempotent. Not threadsafe.
        pub fn await(f: *@This(), io: Io) Result {
            const any_future = f.any_future orelse return f.result;
            io.vtable.await(io.userdata, any_future, @ptrCast(&f.result), .of(Result));
            f.any_future = null;
            return f.result;
        }
    };
}

/// An unordered set of tasks which can only be awaited or canceled as a whole.
/// Tasks are spawned in the group with `Group.async` and `Group.concurrent`.
///
/// The resources associated with each task are *guaranteed* to be released when
/// the individual task returns, as opposed to when the whole group completes or
/// is awaited. For this reason, it is not a resource leak to have a long-lived
/// group which concurrent tasks are repeatedly added to. However, asynchronous
/// tasks are not guaranteed to run until `Group.await` or `Group.cancel` is
/// called, so adding async tasks to a group without ever awaiting it may leak
/// resources.
pub const Group = struct {
    /// This value indicates whether or not a group has pending tasks. `null`
    /// means there are no pending tasks, and no resources associated with the
    /// group, so `await` and `cancel` return immediately without calling the
    /// implementation. This means that `token` must be accessed atomically to
    /// avoid racing with the check in `await` and `cancel`.
    token: std.atomic.Value(?*anyopaque),
    /// This value is available for the implementation to use as it wishes.
    state: usize,

    pub const init: Group = .{ .token = .init(null), .state = 0 };

    /// Equivalent to `Io.async`, except the task is spawned in this `Group`
    /// instead of becoming associated with a `Future`.
    ///
    /// The return type of `function` must be coercible to `Cancelable!void`.
    /// `function` returning `error.Canceled` does nothing because it is an
    /// cancelation propagation boundary.
    ///
    /// Once this function is called, there are resources associated with the
    /// group. To release those resources, `Group.await` or `Group.cancel` must
    /// eventually be called.
    pub fn async(g: *Group, io: Io, function: anytype, args: std.meta.ArgsTuple(@TypeOf(function))) void {
        const Args = @TypeOf(args);
        const TypeErased = struct {
            fn start(context: *const anyopaque) void {
                const args_casted: *const Args = @ptrCast(@alignCast(context));
                _ = @as(Cancelable!void, @call(.auto, function, args_casted.*)) catch {};
            }
        };
        io.vtable.groupAsync(io.userdata, g, @ptrCast(&args), .of(Args), TypeErased.start);
    }

    /// Equivalent to `Io.concurrent`, except the task is spawned in this
    /// `Group` instead of becoming associated with a `Future`.
    ///
    /// The return type of `function` must be coercible to `Cancelable!void`.
    /// `function` returning `error.Canceled` does nothing because it is an
    /// cancelation propagation boundary.
    ///
    /// Once this function is called, there are resources associated with the
    /// group. To release those resources, `Group.await` or `Group.cancel` must
    /// eventually be called.
    pub fn concurrent(g: *Group, io: Io, function: anytype, args: std.meta.ArgsTuple(@TypeOf(function))) ConcurrentError!void {
        const Args = @TypeOf(args);
        const TypeErased = struct {
            fn start(context: *const anyopaque) void {
                const args_casted: *const Args = @ptrCast(@alignCast(context));
                _ = @as(Cancelable!void, @call(.auto, function, args_casted.*)) catch {};
            }
        };
        return io.vtable.groupConcurrent(io.userdata, g, @ptrCast(&args), .of(Args), TypeErased.start);
    }

    /// Blocks until all tasks of the group finish. During this time,
    /// cancelation requests propagate to all members of the group, and
    /// will also cause `error.Canceled` to be returned when the group
    /// does ultimately finish.
    ///
    /// Idempotent. Not threadsafe.
    ///
    /// It is safe to call this function concurrently with `Group.async` or
    /// `Group.concurrent`, provided that the group does not complete until
    /// the call to `Group.async` or `Group.concurrent` returns.
    pub fn await(g: *Group, io: Io) Cancelable!void {
        const token = g.token.load(.acquire) orelse return;
        try io.vtable.groupAwait(io.userdata, g, token);
        assert(g.token.raw == null);
    }

    /// Equivalent to `await` but immediately requests cancelation on all
    /// members of the group.
    ///
    /// For a description of cancelation and cancelation points, see `Future.cancel`.
    ///
    /// Idempotent. Not threadsafe.
    ///
    /// It is safe to call this function concurrently with `Group.async` or
    /// `Group.concurrent`, provided that the group does not complete until
    /// the call to `Group.async` or `Group.concurrent` returns.
    pub fn cancel(g: *Group, io: Io) void {
        const token = g.token.load(.acquire) orelse return;
        io.vtable.groupCancel(io.userdata, g, token);
        assert(g.token.raw == null);
    }
};

/// Asserts that `error.Canceled` was returned from a prior cancelation point, and "re-arms" the
/// cancelation request, so that `error.Canceled` will be returned again from the next cancelation
/// point.
///
/// For a description of cancelation and cancelation points, see `Future.cancel`.
pub fn recancel(io: Io) void {
    io.vtable.recancel(io.userdata);
}

/// In rare cases, it is desirable to completely block cancelation notification, so that a region
/// of code can run uninterrupted before `error.Canceled` is potentially observed. Therefore, every
/// task has a "cancel protection" state which indicates whether or not `Io` functions can introduce
/// cancelation points.
///
/// To modify a task's cancel protection state, see `swapCancelProtection`.
///
/// For a description of cancelation and cancelation points, see `Future.cancel`.
pub const CancelProtection = enum(u1) {
    /// Any call to an `Io` function with `error.Canceled` in its error set is a cancelation point.
    ///
    /// This is the default state, which all tasks are created in.
    unblocked = 0,
    /// No `Io` function introduces a cancelation point (`error.Canceled` will never be returned).
    blocked = 1,
};
/// Updates the current task's cancel protection state (see `CancelProtection`).
///
/// The typical usage for this function is to protect a block of code from cancelation:
/// ```
/// const old_cancel_protect = io.swapCancelProtection(.blocked);
/// defer _ = io.swapCancelProtection(old_cancel_protect);
/// doSomeWork() catch |err| switch (err) {
///     error.Canceled => unreachable,
/// };
/// ```
///
/// For a description of cancelation and cancelation points, see `Future.cancel`.
pub fn swapCancelProtection(io: Io, new: CancelProtection) CancelProtection {
    return io.vtable.swapCancelProtection(io.userdata, new);
}

/// This function acts as a pure cancelation point (subject to protection; see `CancelProtection`)
/// and does nothing else. In other words, it returns `error.Canceled` if there is an outstanding
/// non-blocked cancelation request, but otherwise is a no-op.
///
/// It is rarely necessary to call this function. The primary use case is in long-running CPU-bound
/// tasks which may need to respond to cancelation before completing. Short tasks, or those which
/// perform other `Io` operations (and hence have other cancelation points), will typically already
/// respond quickly to cancelation requests.
///
/// For a description of cancelation and cancelation points, see `Future.cancel`.
pub fn checkCancel(io: Io) Cancelable!void {
    return io.vtable.checkCancel(io.userdata);
}

/// Executes tasks together, providing a mechanism to wait until one or more
/// tasks complete. Similar to `Batch` but operates at the higher level task
/// abstraction layer rather than lower level `Operation` abstraction layer.
///
/// The provided tagged union will be used as the return type of the await
/// function. When calling async or concurrent, one specifies which union field
/// the called function's result will be placed into upon completion.
pub fn Select(comptime U: type) type {
    return struct {
        io: Io,
        group: Group,
        queue: Queue(U),

        const S = @This();

        pub const Union = U;

        pub const Field = std.meta.FieldEnum(U);

        pub fn init(io: Io, buffer: []U) S {
            return .{
                .io = io,
                .queue = .init(buffer),
                .group = .init,
            };
        }

        /// Calls `function` with `args` asynchronously. The resource spawned is
        /// owned by the select.
        ///
        /// `function` must have return type matching the `field` field of `Union`.
        ///
        /// `function` *may* be called immediately, before `async` returns.
        ///
        /// When this function returns, it is guaranteed that `function` has
        /// already been called and completed, or it has successfully been
        /// assigned a unit of concurrency.
        ///
        /// After this is called, `await` or `cancel` must be called before the
        /// select is deinitialized.
        ///
        /// Threadsafe.
        ///
        /// Related:
        /// * `Io.async`
        /// * `Group.async`
        pub fn async(
            s: *S,
            comptime field: Field,
            function: anytype,
            args: std.meta.ArgsTuple(@TypeOf(function)),
        ) void {
            const Context = struct {
                select: *S,
                args: @TypeOf(args),
                fn start(type_erased_context: *const anyopaque) void {
                    const context: *const @This() = @ptrCast(@alignCast(type_erased_context));
                    const result = @call(.auto, function, context.args);
                    const elem = @unionInit(U, @tagName(field), result);
                    context.select.queue.putOneUncancelable(context.select.io, elem) catch |err| switch (err) {
                        error.Closed => {},
                    };
                }
            };
            const context: Context = .{ .select = s, .args = args };
            s.io.vtable.groupAsync(s.io.userdata, &s.group, @ptrCast(&context), .of(Context), Context.start);
        }

        /// Calls `function` with `args` concurrently. The resource spawned is
        /// owned by the select.
        ///
        /// `function` must have return type matching the `field` field of `Union`.
        ///
        /// After this function returns successfully, it is guaranteed that
        /// `function` has been assigned a unit of concurrency, and `await` or
        /// `cancel` must be called before the select is deinitialized.
        ///
        ///
        /// Threadsafe.
        ///
        /// Related:
        /// * `Io.concurrent`
        /// * `Group.concurrent`
        pub fn concurrent(
            s: *S,
            comptime field: Field,
            function: anytype,
            args: std.meta.ArgsTuple(@TypeOf(function)),
        ) ConcurrentError!void {
            const Context = struct {
                select: *S,
                args: @TypeOf(args),
                fn start(type_erased_context: *const anyopaque) void {
                    const context: *const @This() = @ptrCast(@alignCast(type_erased_context));
                    const result = @call(.auto, function, context.args);
                    const elem = @unionInit(U, @tagName(field), result);
                    context.select.queue.putOneUncancelable(context.select.io, elem) catch |err| switch (err) {
                        error.Closed => {},
                    };
                }
            };
            const context: Context = .{ .select = s, .args = args };
            try s.io.vtable.groupConcurrent(s.io.userdata, &s.group, @ptrCast(&context), .of(Context), Context.start);
        }

        /// Blocks until another task of the select finishes.
        ///
        /// It is legal to call `async` and `concurrent` after this.
        ///
        /// Threadsafe.
        pub fn await(s: *S) Cancelable!U {
            return s.queue.getOne(s.io) catch |err| switch (err) {
                error.Canceled => |e| return e,
                error.Closed => unreachable,
            };
        }

        /// Blocks until at least `min` number of results have been copied
        /// into `buffer`.
        ///
        /// Asserts that `buffer.len >= min`.
        ///
        /// It is legal to call `async` and `concurrent` after this.
        ///
        /// Threadsafe.
        pub fn awaitMany(s: *S, buffer: []U, min: usize) Cancelable!usize {
            return s.queue.get(s.io, buffer, min) catch |err| switch (err) {
                error.Canceled => |e| return e,
                error.Closed => unreachable,
            };
        }

        /// Requests cancelation on all remaining tasks owned by the select,
        /// then blocks until they all finish. If the select was initialized
        /// with insufficient buffer space for all remaining tasks to finish, a
        /// deadlock occurs.
        ///
        /// If any of the select tasks allocate resources, those tasks may have
        /// completed, meaning that this function must be called in a loop
        /// until `null` is returned in order to deallocate those resources. If
        /// there is no possibility of resource leaks, `cancelDiscard` is
        /// preferable.
        ///
        /// It is illegal to call `await` or `awaitMany` after this.
        ///
        /// It is safe to call this multiple times, even after `null` is
        /// returned.
        ///
        /// Threadsafe.
        pub fn cancel(s: *S) ?U {
            const io = s.io;
            s.group.cancel(io);
            s.queue.close(io);
            return s.queue.getOneUncancelable(io) catch |err| switch (err) {
                error.Closed => return null,
            };
        }

        /// Requests cancelation on all remaining tasks owned by the select,
        /// then blocks until they all finish.
        ///
        /// All return values from outstanding tasks are discarded. This
        /// function is therefore inappropriate to call when a task can return
        /// an allocated resource. For that use case, see `cancel`.
        ///
        /// It is illegal to call `await` or `awaitMany` after this.
        ///
        /// It is safe to call this multiple times.
        ///
        /// Threadsafe.
        pub fn cancelDiscard(s: *S) void {
            const io = s.io;
            const token = s.group.token.load(.acquire) orelse return;
            s.queue.close(io);
            io.vtable.groupCancel(io.userdata, &s.group, token);
            assert(s.group.token.raw == null);
        }
    };
}

/// Atomically checks if the value at `ptr` equals `expected`, and if so, blocks until either:
///
/// * a matching (same `ptr` argument) `futexWake` call occurs, or
/// * a spurious ("random") wakeup occurs.
///
/// Typically, `futexWake` should be called immediately after updating the value at `ptr.*`, to
/// unblock tasks using `futexWait` to wait for the value to change from what it previously was.
///
/// The caller is responsible for identifying spurious wakeups if necessary, typically by checking
/// the value at `ptr.*`.
///
/// Asserts that `T` is 4 bytes in length and has a well-defined layout with no padding bits.
pub fn futexWait(io: Io, comptime T: type, ptr: *align(@alignOf(u32)) const T, expected: T) Cancelable!void {
    return futexWaitTimeout(io, T, ptr, expected, .none);
}
/// Same as `futexWait`, except also unblocks if `timeout` expires. As with `futexWait`, spurious
/// wakeups are possible. It remains the caller's responsibility to differentiate between these
/// three possible wake-up reasons if necessary.
pub fn futexWaitTimeout(io: Io, comptime T: type, ptr: *align(@alignOf(u32)) const T, expected: T, timeout: Timeout) Cancelable!void {
    const expected_int: u32 = switch (@typeInfo(T)) {
        .@"enum" => @bitCast(@intFromEnum(expected)),
        else => @bitCast(expected),
    };
    return io.vtable.futexWait(io.userdata, @ptrCast(ptr), expected_int, timeout);
}
/// Same as `futexWait`, except does not introduce a cancelation point.
///
/// For a description of cancelation and cancelation points, see `Future.cancel`.
pub fn futexWaitUncancelable(io: Io, comptime T: type, ptr: *align(@alignOf(u32)) const T, expected: T) void {
    const expected_int: u32 = switch (@typeInfo(T)) {
        .@"enum" => @bitCast(@intFromEnum(expected)),
        else => @bitCast(expected),
    };
    io.vtable.futexWaitUncancelable(io.userdata, @ptrCast(ptr), expected_int);
}
/// Unblocks pending futex waits on `ptr`, up to a limit of `max_waiters` calls.
pub fn futexWake(io: Io, comptime T: type, ptr: *align(@alignOf(u32)) const T, max_waiters: u32) void {
    comptime assert(@sizeOf(T) == @sizeOf(u32));
    if (max_waiters == 0) return;
    return io.vtable.futexWake(io.userdata, @ptrCast(ptr), max_waiters);
}

/// Mutex is a synchronization primitive which enforces atomic access to a
/// shared region of code known as the "critical section".
///
/// Mutex is an extern struct so that it may be used as a field inside another
/// extern struct.
pub const Mutex = extern struct {
    state: std.atomic.Value(State),

    pub const init: Mutex = .{ .state = .init(.unlocked) };

    pub const State = enum(u32) {
        unlocked,
        locked_once,
        contended,
    };

    pub fn tryLock(m: *Mutex) bool {
        return m.state.cmpxchgStrong(.unlocked, .locked_once, .acquire, .monotonic) == null;
    }

    pub fn lock(m: *Mutex, io: Io) Cancelable!void {
        const initial_state = m.state.cmpxchgStrong(
            .unlocked,
            .locked_once,
            .acquire,
            .monotonic,
        ) orelse {
            @branchHint(.likely);
            return;
        };
        if (initial_state == .contended) {
            try io.futexWait(State, &m.state.raw, .contended);
        }
        while (m.state.swap(.contended, .acquire) != .unlocked) {
            try io.futexWait(State, &m.state.raw, .contended);
        }
    }

    /// Same as `lock`, except does not introduce a cancelation point.
    ///
    /// For a description of cancelation and cancelation points, see `Future.cancel`.
    pub fn lockUncancelable(m: *Mutex, io: Io) void {
        const initial_state = m.state.cmpxchgStrong(
            .unlocked,
            .locked_once,
            .acquire,
            .monotonic,
        ) orelse {
            @branchHint(.likely);
            return;
        };
        if (initial_state == .contended) {
            io.futexWaitUncancelable(State, &m.state.raw, .contended);
        }
        while (m.state.swap(.contended, .acquire) != .unlocked) {
            io.futexWaitUncancelable(State, &m.state.raw, .contended);
        }
    }

    pub fn unlock(m: *Mutex, io: Io) void {
        switch (m.state.swap(.unlocked, .release)) {
            .unlocked => unreachable,
            .locked_once => {},
            .contended => {
                @branchHint(.unlikely);
                io.futexWake(State, &m.state.raw, 1);
            },
        }
    }
};

pub const Condition = struct {
    state: std.atomic.Value(State),
    /// Incremented whenever the condition is signaled
    epoch: std.atomic.Value(u32),

    const State = packed struct(u32) {
        waiters: u16,
        signals: u16,
    };

    pub const init: Condition = .{
        .state = .init(.{ .waiters = 0, .signals = 0 }),
        .epoch = .init(0),
    };

    /// Blocks until the condition is signaled or canceled.
    ///
    /// See also:
    /// * `waitUncancelable`
    /// * `waitTimeout`
    pub fn wait(cond: *Condition, io: Io, mutex: *Mutex) Cancelable!void {
        waitTimeout(cond, io, mutex, .none) catch |err| switch (err) {
            error.Timeout => unreachable,
            error.Canceled => |e| return e,
        };
    }

    pub const WaitTimeoutError = Cancelable || Timeout.Error;

    /// Blocks until the condition is signaled, canceled, or the provided
    /// timeout expires.
    ///
    /// See also:
    /// * `wait`
    /// * `waitUncancelable`
    pub fn waitTimeout(cond: *Condition, io: Io, mutex: *Mutex, timeout: Timeout) WaitTimeoutError!void {
        const deadline = timeout.toDeadline(io);

        var epoch = cond.epoch.load(.acquire); // `.acquire` to ensure ordered before state load

        {
            const prev_state = cond.state.fetchAdd(.{ .waiters = 1, .signals = 0 }, .monotonic);
            assert(prev_state.waiters < math.maxInt(u16)); // overflow caused by too many waiters
        }

        mutex.unlock(io);
        defer mutex.lockUncancelable(io);

        while (true) {
            const result = io.futexWaitTimeout(u32, &cond.epoch.raw, epoch, deadline);

            epoch = cond.epoch.load(.acquire); // `.acquire` to ensure ordered before `state` laod

            // Even on error, try to consume a pending signal first. Otherwise a race might
            // cause a signal to get stuck in the state with no corresponding waiter.
            {
                var prev_state = cond.state.load(.monotonic);
                while (prev_state.signals > 0) {
                    prev_state = cond.state.cmpxchgWeak(prev_state, .{
                        .waiters = prev_state.waiters - 1,
                        .signals = prev_state.signals - 1,
                    }, .acquire, .monotonic) orelse {
                        // We successfully consumed a signal.
                        return;
                    };
                }
            }

            // There are no more signals available; this was a spurious wakeup or an error. If it
            // was an error, we will remove ourselves as a waiter and return that error. If a
            // timeout was specified and the deadline has passed, we remove ourselves as a waiter
            // and return `error.Timeout`. Otherwise, we'll loop back to the futex wait.
            result catch |err| {
                const prev_state = cond.state.fetchSub(.{ .waiters = 1, .signals = 0 }, .monotonic);
                assert(prev_state.waiters > 0); // underflow caused by illegal state
                return err;
            };
            switch (deadline) {
                .none => {},
                .deadline => |d| if (d.untilNow(io).raw.nanoseconds >= 0) {
                    const prev_state = cond.state.fetchSub(.{ .waiters = 1, .signals = 0 }, .monotonic);
                    assert(prev_state.waiters > 0); // underflow caused by illegal state
                    return error.Timeout;
                },
                .duration => unreachable,
            }
        }
    }

    /// Same as `wait`, except does not introduce a cancelation point.
    ///
    /// See `Future.cancel` for a description of cancelation points.
    pub fn waitUncancelable(cond: *Condition, io: Io, mutex: *Mutex) void {
        var epoch = cond.epoch.load(.acquire); // `.acquire` to ensure ordered before state load

        {
            const prev_state = cond.state.fetchAdd(.{ .waiters = 1, .signals = 0 }, .monotonic);
            assert(prev_state.waiters < math.maxInt(u16)); // overflow caused by too many waiters
        }

        mutex.unlock(io);
        defer mutex.lockUncancelable(io);

        while (true) {
            io.futexWaitUncancelable(u32, &cond.epoch.raw, epoch);

            epoch = cond.epoch.load(.acquire); // `.acquire` to ensure ordered before `state` laod

            // Even on error, try to consume a pending signal first. Otherwise a race might
            // cause a signal to get stuck in the state with no corresponding waiter.
            {
                var prev_state = cond.state.load(.monotonic);
                while (prev_state.signals > 0) {
                    prev_state = cond.state.cmpxchgWeak(prev_state, .{
                        .waiters = prev_state.waiters - 1,
                        .signals = prev_state.signals - 1,
                    }, .acquire, .monotonic) orelse {
                        // We successfully consumed a signal.
                        return;
                    };
                }
            }

            // There are no more signals available; this was a spurious wakeup,
            // so we'll loop back to the futex wait.
        }
    }

    pub fn signal(cond: *Condition, io: Io) void {
        var prev_state = cond.state.load(.monotonic);
        while (prev_state.waiters > prev_state.signals) {
            @branchHint(.unlikely);
            prev_state = cond.state.cmpxchgWeak(prev_state, .{
                .waiters = prev_state.waiters,
                .signals = prev_state.signals + 1,
            }, .release, .monotonic) orelse {
                // Update the epoch to tell the waiting threads that there are new signals for them.
                // Note that a waiting thread could miss a take if *exactly* (1<<32)-1 wakes happen
                // between it observing the epoch and sleeping on it, but this is extraordinarily
                // unlikely due to the precise number of calls required.
                _ = cond.epoch.fetchAdd(1, .release); // `.release` to ensure ordered after `state` update
                io.futexWake(u32, &cond.epoch.raw, 1);
                return;
            };
        }
    }

    pub fn broadcast(cond: *Condition, io: Io) void {
        var prev_state = cond.state.load(.monotonic);
        while (prev_state.waiters > prev_state.signals) {
            @branchHint(.unlikely);
            prev_state = cond.state.cmpxchgWeak(prev_state, .{
                .waiters = prev_state.waiters,
                .signals = prev_state.waiters,
            }, .release, .monotonic) orelse {
                // Update the epoch to tell the waiting threads that there are new signals for them.
                // Note that a waiting thread could miss a take if *exactly* (1<<32)-1 wakes happen
                // between it observing the epoch and sleeping on it, but this is extraordinarily
                // unlikely due to the precise number of calls required.
                _ = cond.epoch.fetchAdd(1, .release); // `.release` to ensure ordered after `state` update
                io.futexWake(u32, &cond.epoch.raw, prev_state.waiters - prev_state.signals);
                return;
            };
        }
    }
};

/// Logical boolean flag which can be set and unset and supports a "wait until set" operation.
pub const Event = enum(u32) {
    unset,
    waiting,
    is_set,

    /// Returns whether the logical boolean is `true`.
    pub fn isSet(event: *const Event) bool {
        return switch (@atomicLoad(Event, event, .acquire)) {
            .unset, .waiting => false,
            .is_set => true,
        };
    }

    /// Blocks until the logical boolean is `true`.
    pub fn wait(event: *Event, io: Io) Cancelable!void {
        if (@cmpxchgStrong(Event, event, .unset, .waiting, .acquire, .acquire)) |prev| switch (prev) {
            .unset => unreachable,
            .waiting => {},
            .is_set => return,
        };
        errdefer {
            // Ideally we would restore the event back to `.unset` instead of `.waiting`, but there
            // might be other threads waiting on the event. In theory we could track the *number* of
            // waiting threads in the unused bits of the `Event`, but that has its own problem: the
            // waiters would wake up when a *new waiter* was added. So it's easiest to just leave
            // the state at `.waiting`---at worst it causes one redundant call to `futexWake`.
        }
        while (true) {
            try io.futexWait(Event, event, .waiting);
            switch (@atomicLoad(Event, event, .acquire)) {
                .unset => unreachable, // `reset` called before pending `wait` returned
                .waiting => continue,
                .is_set => return,
            }
        }
    }

    /// Same as `wait`, except does not introduce a cancelation point.
    ///
    /// For a description of cancelation and cancelation points, see `Future.cancel`.
    pub fn waitUncancelable(event: *Event, io: Io) void {
        if (@cmpxchgStrong(Event, event, .unset, .waiting, .acquire, .acquire)) |prev| switch (prev) {
            .unset => unreachable,
            .waiting => {},
            .is_set => return,
        };
        while (true) {
            io.futexWaitUncancelable(Event, event, .waiting);
            switch (@atomicLoad(Event, event, .acquire)) {
                .unset => unreachable, // `reset` called before pending `wait` returned
                .waiting => continue,
                .is_set => return,
            }
        }
    }

    pub const WaitTimeoutError = error{Timeout} || Cancelable;

    /// Blocks the calling thread until either the logical boolean is set, the timeout expires, or a
    /// spurious wakeup occurs. If the timeout expires or a spurious wakeup occurs, `error.Timeout`
    /// is returned.
    pub fn waitTimeout(event: *Event, io: Io, timeout: Timeout) WaitTimeoutError!void {
        if (@cmpxchgStrong(Event, event, .unset, .waiting, .acquire, .acquire)) |prev| switch (prev) {
            .unset => unreachable,
            .waiting => {},
            .is_set => return,
        };
        errdefer {
            // Ideally we would restore the event back to `.unset` instead of `.waiting`, but there
            // might be other threads waiting on the event. In theory we could track the *number* of
            // waiting threads in the unused bits of the `Event`, but that has its own problem: the
            // waiters would wake up when a *new waiter* was added. So it's easiest to just leave
            // the state at `.waiting`---at worst it causes one redundant call to `futexWake`.
        }
        try io.futexWaitTimeout(Event, event, .waiting, timeout);
        switch (@atomicLoad(Event, event, .acquire)) {
            .unset => unreachable, // `reset` called before pending `wait` returned
            .waiting => return error.Timeout,
            .is_set => return,
        }
    }

    /// Sets the logical boolean to true, and hence unblocks any pending calls to `wait`. The
    /// logical boolean remains true until `reset` is called, so future calls to `set` have no
    /// semantic effect.
    ///
    /// Any memory accesses prior to a `set` call are "released", so that if this `set` call causes
    /// `isSet` to return `true` or a wait to finish, those tasks will be able to observe those
    /// memory accesses.
    pub fn set(e: *Event, io: Io) void {
        switch (@atomicRmw(Event, e, .Xchg, .is_set, .release)) {
            .unset, .is_set => {},
            .waiting => io.futexWake(Event, e, math.maxInt(u32)),
        }
    }

    /// Sets the logical boolean to false.
    ///
    /// Assumes that there is no pending call to `wait` or `waitUncancelable`.
    ///
    /// However, concurrent calls to `isSet`, `set`, and `reset` are allowed.
    pub fn reset(e: *Event) void {
        @atomicStore(Event, e, .unset, .monotonic);
    }
};

pub const QueueClosedError = error{Closed};

pub const TypeErasedQueue = struct {
    mutex: Mutex,
    closed: bool,

    /// Ring buffer. This data is logically *after* queued getters.
    buffer: []u8,
    start: usize,
    len: usize,

    putters: std.DoublyLinkedList,
    getters: std.DoublyLinkedList,

    const Put = struct {
        remaining: []const u8,
        needed: usize,
        condition: Condition,
        node: std.DoublyLinkedList.Node,
    };

    const Get = struct {
        remaining: []u8,
        needed: usize,
        condition: Condition,
        node: std.DoublyLinkedList.Node,
    };

    pub fn init(buffer: []u8) TypeErasedQueue {
        return .{
            .mutex = .init,
            .closed = false,
            .buffer = buffer,
            .start = 0,
            .len = 0,
            .putters = .{},
            .getters = .{},
        };
    }

    /// After this is called, the queue enters a "closed" state. A closed
    /// queue always returns `error.Closed` for put attempts even when
    /// there is space in the buffer. However, existing elements of the
    /// queue are retrieved before `error.Closed` is returned.
    ///
    /// Idempotent. Threadsafe.
    pub fn close(q: *TypeErasedQueue, io: Io) void {
        q.mutex.lockUncancelable(io);
        defer q.mutex.unlock(io);
        q.closed = true;
        {
            var it = q.getters.first;
            while (it) |node| : (it = node.next) {
                const getter: *Get = @alignCast(@fieldParentPtr("node", node));
                getter.condition.signal(io);
            }
        }
        {
            var it = q.putters.first;
            while (it) |node| : (it = node.next) {
                const putter: *Put = @alignCast(@fieldParentPtr("node", node));
                putter.condition.signal(io);
            }
        }
    }

    pub fn put(q: *TypeErasedQueue, io: Io, elements: []const u8, min: usize) (QueueClosedError || Cancelable)!usize {
        assert(elements.len >= min);
        if (elements.len == 0) return 0;
        try q.mutex.lock(io);
        defer q.mutex.unlock(io);
        return q.putLocked(io, elements, min, false);
    }

    /// Same as `put`, except does not introduce a cancelation point.
    ///
    /// For a description of cancelation and cancelation points, see `Future.cancel`.
    pub fn putUncancelable(q: *TypeErasedQueue, io: Io, elements: []const u8, min: usize) QueueClosedError!usize {
        assert(elements.len >= min);
        if (elements.len == 0) return 0;
        q.mutex.lockUncancelable(io);
        defer q.mutex.unlock(io);
        return q.putLocked(io, elements, min, true) catch |err| switch (err) {
            error.Canceled => unreachable,
            error.Closed => |e| return e,
        };
    }

    fn puttableSlice(q: *const TypeErasedQueue) ?[]u8 {
        const unwrapped_index = q.start + q.len;
        const wrapped_index, const overflow = @subWithOverflow(unwrapped_index, q.buffer.len);
        const slice = switch (overflow) {
            1 => q.buffer[unwrapped_index..],
            0 => q.buffer[wrapped_index..q.start],
        };
        return if (slice.len > 0) slice else null;
    }

    fn putLocked(q: *TypeErasedQueue, io: Io, elements: []const u8, min: usize, uncancelable: bool) (QueueClosedError || Cancelable)!usize {
        // A closed queue cannot be added to, even if there is space in the buffer.
        if (q.closed) return error.Closed;

        // Getters have first priority on the data, and only when the getters
        // queue is empty do we start populating the buffer.

        // The number of elements we add immediately, before possibly blocking.
        var n: usize = 0;

        while (q.getters.popFirst()) |getter_node| {
            const getter: *Get = @alignCast(@fieldParentPtr("node", getter_node));
            const copy_len = @min(getter.remaining.len, elements.len - n);
            assert(copy_len > 0);
            @memcpy(getter.remaining[0..copy_len], elements[n..][0..copy_len]);
            getter.remaining = getter.remaining[copy_len..];
            getter.needed -|= copy_len;
            n += copy_len;
            if (getter.needed == 0) {
                getter.condition.signal(io);
            } else {
                assert(n == elements.len); // we didn't have enough elements for the getter
                q.getters.prepend(getter_node);
            }
            if (n == elements.len) return elements.len;
        }

        while (q.puttableSlice()) |slice| {
            const copy_len = @min(slice.len, elements.len - n);
            assert(copy_len > 0);
            @memcpy(slice[0..copy_len], elements[n..][0..copy_len]);
            q.len += copy_len;
            n += copy_len;
            if (n == elements.len) return elements.len;
        }

        // Don't block if we hit the min.
        if (n >= min) return n;

        var pending: Put = .{
            .remaining = elements[n..],
            .needed = min - n,
            .condition = .init,
            .node = .{},
        };
        q.putters.append(&pending.node);
        defer if (pending.needed > 0) q.putters.remove(&pending.node);

        while (pending.needed > 0 and !q.closed) {
            if (uncancelable) {
                pending.condition.waitUncancelable(io, &q.mutex);
                continue;
            }
            pending.condition.wait(io, &q.mutex) catch |err| switch (err) {
                error.Canceled => if (pending.remaining.len == elements.len) {
                    // Canceled while waiting, and appended no elements.
                    return error.Canceled;
                } else {
                    // Canceled while waiting, but appended some elements, so report those first.
                    io.recancel();
                    return elements.len - pending.remaining.len;
                },
            };
        }
        if (pending.remaining.len == elements.len) {
            // The queue was closed while we were waiting. We appended no elements.
            assert(q.closed);
            return error.Closed;
        }
        return elements.len - pending.remaining.len;
    }

    pub fn get(q: *TypeErasedQueue, io: Io, buffer: []u8, min: usize) (QueueClosedError || Cancelable)!usize {
        assert(buffer.len >= min);
        if (buffer.len == 0) return 0;
        try q.mutex.lock(io);
        defer q.mutex.unlock(io);
        return q.getLocked(io, buffer, min, false);
    }

    /// Same as `get`, except does not introduce a cancelation point.
    ///
    /// For a description of cancelation and cancelation points, see `Future.cancel`.
    pub fn getUncancelable(q: *TypeErasedQueue, io: Io, buffer: []u8, min: usize) QueueClosedError!usize {
        assert(buffer.len >= min);
        if (buffer.len == 0) return 0;
        q.mutex.lockUncancelable(io);
        defer q.mutex.unlock(io);
        return q.getLocked(io, buffer, min, true) catch |err| switch (err) {
            error.Canceled => unreachable,
            error.Closed => |e| return e,
        };
    }

    fn gettableSlice(q: *const TypeErasedQueue) ?[]const u8 {
        const overlong_slice = q.buffer[q.start..];
        const slice = overlong_slice[0..@min(overlong_slice.len, q.len)];
        return if (slice.len > 0) slice else null;
    }

    fn getLocked(q: *TypeErasedQueue, io: Io, buffer: []u8, min: usize, uncancelable: bool) (QueueClosedError || Cancelable)!usize {
        // The ring buffer gets first priority, then data should come from any
        // queued putters, then finally the ring buffer should be filled with
        // data from putters so they can be resumed.

        // The number of elements we received immediately, before possibly blocking.
        var n: usize = 0;

        while (q.gettableSlice()) |slice| {
            const copy_len = @min(slice.len, buffer.len - n);
            assert(copy_len > 0);
            @memcpy(buffer[n..][0..copy_len], slice[0..copy_len]);
            q.start += copy_len;
            if (q.buffer.len - q.start == 0) q.start = 0;
            q.len -= copy_len;
            n += copy_len;
            if (n == buffer.len) {
                q.fillRingBufferFromPutters(io);
                return buffer.len;
            }
        }

        // Copy directly from putters into buffer.
        while (q.putters.popFirst()) |putter_node| {
            const putter: *Put = @alignCast(@fieldParentPtr("node", putter_node));
            const copy_len = @min(putter.remaining.len, buffer.len - n);
            assert(copy_len > 0);
            @memcpy(buffer[n..][0..copy_len], putter.remaining[0..copy_len]);
            putter.remaining = putter.remaining[copy_len..];
            putter.needed -|= copy_len;
            n += copy_len;
            if (putter.needed == 0) {
                putter.condition.signal(io);
            } else {
                assert(n == buffer.len); // we didn't have enough space for the putter
                q.putters.prepend(putter_node);
            }
            if (n == buffer.len) {
                q.fillRingBufferFromPutters(io);
                return buffer.len;
            }
        }

        // No need to call `fillRingBufferFromPutters` from this point onwards,
        // because we emptied the ring buffer *and* the putter queue!

        // Don't block if we hit the min or if the queue is closed. Return how
        // many elements we could get immediately, unless the queue was closed and
        // empty, in which case report `error.Closed`.
        if (n == 0 and q.closed) return error.Closed;
        if (n >= min or q.closed) return n;

        var pending: Get = .{
            .remaining = buffer[n..],
            .needed = min - n,
            .condition = .init,
            .node = .{},
        };
        q.getters.append(&pending.node);
        defer if (pending.needed > 0) q.getters.remove(&pending.node);

        while (pending.needed > 0 and !q.closed) {
            if (uncancelable) {
                pending.condition.waitUncancelable(io, &q.mutex);
                continue;
            }
            pending.condition.wait(io, &q.mutex) catch |err| switch (err) {
                error.Canceled => if (pending.remaining.len == buffer.len) {
                    // Canceled while waiting, and received no elements.
                    return error.Canceled;
                } else {
                    // Canceled while waiting, but received some elements, so report those first.
                    io.recancel();
                    return buffer.len - pending.remaining.len;
                },
            };
        }
        if (pending.remaining.len == buffer.len) {
            // The queue was closed while we were waiting. We received no elements.
            assert(q.closed);
            return error.Closed;
        }
        return buffer.len - pending.remaining.len;
    }

    /// Called when there is nonzero space available in the ring buffer and
    /// potentially putters waiting. The mutex is already held and the task is
    /// to copy putter data to the ring buffer and signal any putters whose
    /// buffers been fully copied.
    fn fillRingBufferFromPutters(q: *TypeErasedQueue, io: Io) void {
        while (q.putters.popFirst()) |putter_node| {
            const putter: *Put = @alignCast(@fieldParentPtr("node", putter_node));
            while (q.puttableSlice()) |slice| {
                const copy_len = @min(slice.len, putter.remaining.len);
                assert(copy_len > 0);
                @memcpy(slice[0..copy_len], putter.remaining[0..copy_len]);
                q.len += copy_len;
                putter.remaining = putter.remaining[copy_len..];
                putter.needed -|= copy_len;
                if (putter.needed == 0) {
                    putter.condition.signal(io);
                    break;
                }
            } else {
                q.putters.prepend(putter_node);
                break;
            }
        }
    }
};

/// Many producer, many consumer, thread-safe, runtime configurable buffer size.
/// When buffer is empty, consumers suspend and are resumed by producers.
/// When buffer is full, producers suspend and are resumed by consumers.
pub fn Queue(Elem: type) type {
    return struct {
        type_erased: TypeErasedQueue,

        pub fn init(buffer: []Elem) @This() {
            return .{ .type_erased = .init(@ptrCast(buffer)) };
        }

        /// After this is called, the queue enters a "closed" state. A closed
        /// queue always returns `error.Closed` for put attempts even when
        /// there is space in the buffer. However, existing elements of the
        /// queue are retrieved before `error.Closed` is returned.
        ///
        /// Threadsafe.
        pub fn close(q: *@This(), io: Io) void {
            q.type_erased.close(io);
        }

        /// Appends elements to the end of the queue, potentially blocking if
        /// there is insufficient capacity. Returns when any one of the
        /// following conditions is satisfied:
        ///
        /// * At least `min` elements have been added to the queue
        /// * The queue is closed
        /// * The current task is canceled
        ///
        /// Returns how many of `elements` have been added to the queue, if any.
        /// If an error is returned, no elements have been added.
        ///
        /// If the queue is closed or the task is canceled, but some items were
        /// already added before the closure or cancelation, then `put` may
        /// return a number lower than `min`, in which case future calls are
        /// guaranteed to return `error.Canceled` or `error.Closed`.
        ///
        /// A return value of 0 is only possible if `min` is 0, in which case
        /// the call is guaranteed to queue as many of `elements` as is possible
        /// *without* blocking.
        ///
        /// Asserts that `elements.len >= min`.
        pub fn put(q: *@This(), io: Io, elements: []const Elem, min: usize) (QueueClosedError || Cancelable)!usize {
            return @divExact(try q.type_erased.put(io, @ptrCast(elements), min * @sizeOf(Elem)), @sizeOf(Elem));
        }

        /// Same as `put` but blocks until all elements have been added to the queue.
        ///
        /// If the queue is closed or canceled, `error.Closed` or `error.Canceled`
        /// is returned, and it is unspecified how many, if any, of `elements` were
        /// added to the queue prior to cancelation or closure.
        pub fn putAll(q: *@This(), io: Io, elements: []const Elem) (QueueClosedError || Cancelable)!void {
            const n = try q.put(io, elements, elements.len);
            if (n != elements.len) {
                _ = try q.put(io, elements[n..], elements.len - n);
                unreachable; // partial `put` implies queue was closed or we were canceled
            }
        }

        /// Same as `put`, except does not introduce a cancelation point.
        ///
        /// For a description of cancelation and cancelation points, see `Future.cancel`.
        pub fn putUncancelable(q: *@This(), io: Io, elements: []const Elem, min: usize) QueueClosedError!usize {
            return @divExact(try q.type_erased.putUncancelable(io, @ptrCast(elements), min * @sizeOf(Elem)), @sizeOf(Elem));
        }

        /// Appends `item` to the end of the queue, blocking if the queue is full.
        pub fn putOne(q: *@This(), io: Io, item: Elem) (QueueClosedError || Cancelable)!void {
            assert(try q.put(io, &.{item}, 1) == 1);
        }

        /// Same as `putOne`, except does not introduce a cancelation point.
        ///
        /// For a description of cancelation and cancelation points, see `Future.cancel`.
        pub fn putOneUncancelable(q: *@This(), io: Io, item: Elem) QueueClosedError!void {
            assert(try q.putUncancelable(io, &.{item}, 1) == 1);
        }

        /// Receives elements from the beginning of the queue, potentially blocking
        /// if there are insufficient elements currently in the queue. Returns when
        /// any one of the following conditions is satisfied:
        ///
        /// * At least `min` elements have been received from the queue
        /// * The queue is closed and contains no buffered elements
        /// * The current task is canceled
        ///
        /// Returns how many elements of `buffer` have been populated, if any.
        /// If an error is returned, no elements have been populated.
        ///
        /// If the queue is closed or the task is canceled, but some items were
        /// already received before the closure or cancelation, then `get` may
        /// return a number lower than `min`, in which case future calls are
        /// guaranteed to return `error.Canceled` or `error.Closed`.
        ///
        /// A return value of 0 is only possible if `min` is 0, in which case
        /// the call is guaranteed to fill as much of `buffer` as is possible
        /// *without* blocking.
        ///
        /// Asserts that `buffer.len >= min`.
        pub fn get(q: *@This(), io: Io, buffer: []Elem, min: usize) (QueueClosedError || Cancelable)!usize {
            return @divExact(try q.type_erased.get(io, @ptrCast(buffer), min * @sizeOf(Elem)), @sizeOf(Elem));
        }

        /// Same as `get`, except does not introduce a cancelation point.
        ///
        /// For a description of cancelation and cancelation points, see `Future.cancel`.
        pub fn getUncancelable(q: *@This(), io: Io, buffer: []Elem, min: usize) QueueClosedError!usize {
            return @divExact(try q.type_erased.getUncancelable(io, @ptrCast(buffer), min * @sizeOf(Elem)), @sizeOf(Elem));
        }

        /// Receives one element from the beginning of the queue, blocking if the queue is empty.
        pub fn getOne(q: *@This(), io: Io) (QueueClosedError || Cancelable)!Elem {
            var buf: [1]Elem = undefined;
            assert(try q.get(io, &buf, 1) == 1);
            return buf[0];
        }

        /// Same as `getOne`, except does not introduce a cancelation point.
        ///
        /// For a description of cancelation and cancelation points, see `Future.cancel`.
        pub fn getOneUncancelable(q: *@This(), io: Io) QueueClosedError!Elem {
            var buf: [1]Elem = undefined;
            assert(try q.getUncancelable(io, &buf, 1) == 1);
            return buf[0];
        }

        /// Returns buffer length in `Elem` units.
        pub fn capacity(q: *const @This()) usize {
            return @divExact(q.type_erased.buffer.len, @sizeOf(Elem));
        }
    };
}

/// Calls `function` with `args`, such that the return value of the function is
/// not guaranteed to be available until `await` is called.
///
/// `function` *may* be called immediately, before `async` returns. This has
/// weaker guarantees than `concurrent`, making more portable and reusable.
///
/// When this function returns, it is guaranteed that `function` has already
/// been called and completed, or it has successfully been assigned a unit of
/// concurrency.
///
/// See also:
/// * `Group`
pub fn async(
    io: Io,
    function: anytype,
    args: std.meta.ArgsTuple(@TypeOf(function)),
) Future(@typeInfo(@TypeOf(function)).@"fn".return_type.?) {
    const Result = @typeInfo(@TypeOf(function)).@"fn".return_type.?;
    const Args = @TypeOf(args);
    const TypeErased = struct {
        fn start(context: *const anyopaque, result: *anyopaque) void {
            const args_casted: *const Args = @ptrCast(@alignCast(context));
            const result_casted: *Result = @ptrCast(@alignCast(result));
            result_casted.* = @call(.auto, function, args_casted.*);
        }
    };
    var future: Future(Result) = undefined;
    future.any_future = io.vtable.async(
        io.userdata,
        @ptrCast(&future.result),
        .of(Result),
        @ptrCast(&args),
        .of(Args),
        TypeErased.start,
    );
    return future;
}

pub const ConcurrentError = error{
    /// May occur due to a temporary condition such as resource exhaustion, or
    /// to the Io implementation not supporting concurrency.
    ConcurrencyUnavailable,
};

/// Calls `function` with `args`, such that the return value of the function is
/// not guaranteed to be available until `await` is called, allowing the caller
/// to progress while waiting for any `Io` operations.
///
/// This has stronger guarantee than `async`, placing restrictions on what kind
/// of `Io` implementations are supported. By calling `async` instead, one
/// allows, for example, stackful single-threaded blocking I/O.
pub fn concurrent(
    io: Io,
    function: anytype,
    args: std.meta.ArgsTuple(@TypeOf(function)),
) ConcurrentError!Future(@typeInfo(@TypeOf(function)).@"fn".return_type.?) {
    const Result = @typeInfo(@TypeOf(function)).@"fn".return_type.?;
    const Args = @TypeOf(args);
    const TypeErased = struct {
        fn start(context: *const anyopaque, result: *anyopaque) void {
            const args_casted: *const Args = @ptrCast(@alignCast(context));
            const result_casted: *Result = @ptrCast(@alignCast(result));
            result_casted.* = @call(.auto, function, args_casted.*);
        }
    };
    var future: Future(Result) = undefined;
    future.any_future = try io.vtable.concurrent(
        io.userdata,
        @sizeOf(Result),
        .of(Result),
        @ptrCast(&args),
        .of(Args),
        TypeErased.start,
    );
    return future;
}

/// Waits until a specified amount of time has passed on `clock`.
///
/// See also:
/// * `Clock.Duration.sleep`
/// * `Clock.Timestamp.wait`
/// * `Timeout.sleep`
pub fn sleep(io: Io, duration: Duration, clock: Clock) Cancelable!void {
    return io.vtable.sleep(io.userdata, .{ .duration = .{
        .raw = duration,
        .clock = clock,
    } });
}

pub const LockedStderr = struct {
    file_writer: *File.Writer,
    terminal_mode: Terminal.Mode,

    pub fn terminal(ls: LockedStderr) Terminal {
        return .{
            .writer = &ls.file_writer.interface,
            .mode = ls.terminal_mode,
        };
    }

    pub fn clear(ls: LockedStderr, buffer: []u8) Cancelable!void {
        const fw = ls.file_writer;
        std.Progress.clearWrittenWithEscapeCodes(fw) catch |err| switch (err) {
            error.WriteFailed => switch (fw.err.?) {
                error.Canceled => |e| return e,
                else => {},
            },
        };
        fw.interface.flush() catch |err| switch (err) {
            error.WriteFailed => switch (fw.err.?) {
                error.Canceled => |e| return e,
                else => {},
            },
        };
        fw.interface.buffer = buffer;
    }
};

/// For doing application-level writes to the standard error stream.
/// Coordinates also with debug-level writes that are ignorant of Io interface
/// and implementations.
///
/// See also:
/// * `tryLockStderr`
pub fn lockStderr(io: Io, buffer: []u8, terminal_mode: ?Terminal.Mode) Cancelable!LockedStderr {
    const ls = try io.vtable.lockStderr(io.userdata, terminal_mode);
    try ls.clear(buffer);
    return ls;
}

/// Same as `lockStderr` but non-blocking.
pub fn tryLockStderr(io: Io, buffer: []u8, terminal_mode: ?Terminal.Mode) Cancelable!?LockedStderr {
    const ls = (try io.vtable.tryLockStderr(io.userdata, buffer, terminal_mode)) orelse return null;
    try ls.clear(buffer);
    return ls;
}

pub fn unlockStderr(io: Io) void {
    return io.vtable.unlockStderr(io.userdata);
}

/// Obtains entropy from a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number
/// generator.
///
/// The implementation *may* store RNG state in process memory and use it to
/// fill `buffer`.
///
/// The randomness is seeded by `randomSecure`, or a less secure mechanism upon
/// failure.
///
/// Threadsafe.
///
/// See also `randomSecure`.
pub fn random(io: Io, buffer: []u8) void {
    return io.vtable.random(io.userdata, buffer);
}

pub const RandomSecureError = error{EntropyUnavailable} || Cancelable;

/// Obtains cryptographically secure entropy from outside the process.
///
/// Always makes a syscall, or otherwise avoids dependency on process memory,
/// in order to obtain fresh randomness. Does not rely on stored RNG state.
///
/// Does not have any fallback mechanisms; returns `error.EntropyUnavailable`
/// if any problems occur.
///
/// Threadsafe.
///
/// See also `random`.
pub fn randomSecure(io: Io, buffer: []u8) RandomSecureError!void {
    return io.vtable.randomSecure(io.userdata, buffer);
}

test {
    _ = net;
    _ = File;
    _ = Dir;
    _ = Reader;
    _ = Writer;
    _ = Evented;
    _ = Threaded;
    _ = RwLock;
    _ = Semaphore;
    _ = @import("Io/test.zig");
}

/// An implementation of `Io` which simulates a system supporting no `Io` operations.
///
/// This system has the following properties:
/// * Concurrency is unavailable.
/// * The stdio handles are pipes whose remote ends are already closed.
/// * The filesystem is entirely empty, including that the cwd is no longer present.
/// * The filesystem is full, so attempting to create entries always returns `error.NoSpaceLeft`.
/// * No entropy source is supported, so `randomSecure` always returns `error.EntropyUnavailable`, and `random` always returns (fills the buffer) with 0.
/// * No clocks are supported, so `now` and `sleep` always return `error.UnsupportedClock`.
/// * No network is connected, so network operations always return `error.NetworkDown`.
pub const failing: std.Io = .{
    .userdata = null,
    .vtable = &.{
        .crashHandler = noCrashHandler,

        .async = noAsync,
        .concurrent = failingConcurrent,
        .await = unreachableAwait,
        .cancel = unreachableCancel,

        .groupAsync = noGroupAsync,
        .groupConcurrent = failingGroupConcurrent,
        .groupAwait = unreachableGroupAwait,
        .groupCancel = unreachableGroupCancel,

        .recancel = unreachableRecancel,
        .swapCancelProtection = unreachableSwapCancelProtection,
        .checkCancel = unreachableCheckCancel,

        .futexWait = noFutexWait,
        .futexWaitUncancelable = noFutexWaitUncancelable,
        .futexWake = noFutexWake,

        .operate = failingOperate,
        .batchAwaitAsync = unreachableBatchAwaitAsync,
        .batchAwaitConcurrent = unreachableBatchAwaitConcurrent,
        .batchCancel = unreachableBatchCancel,

        .dirCreateDir = failingDirCreateDir,
        .dirCreateDirPath = failingDirCreateDirPath,
        .dirCreateDirPathOpen = failingDirCreateDirPathOpen,
        .dirOpenDir = failingDirOpenDir,
        .dirStat = failingDirStat,
        .dirStatFile = failingDirStatFile,
        .dirAccess = failingDirAccess,
        .dirCreateFile = failingDirCreateFile,
        .dirCreateFileAtomic = failingDirCreateFileAtomic,
        .dirOpenFile = failingDirOpenFile,
        .dirClose = unreachableDirClose,
        .dirRead = noDirRead,
        .dirRealPath = failingDirRealPath,
        .dirRealPathFile = failingDirRealPathFile,
        .dirDeleteFile = failingDirDeleteFile,
        .dirDeleteDir = failingDirDeleteDir,
        .dirRename = failingDirRename,
        .dirRenamePreserve = failingDirRenamePreserve,
        .dirSymLink = failingDirSymLink,
        .dirReadLink = failingDirReadLink,
        .dirSetOwner = failingDirSetOwner,
        .dirSetFileOwner = failingDirSetFileOwner,
        .dirSetPermissions = failingDirSetPermissions,
        .dirSetFilePermissions = failingDirSetFilePermissions,
        .dirSetTimestamps = noDirSetTimestamps,
        .dirHardLink = failingDirHardLink,

        .fileStat = failingFileStat,
        .fileLength = failingFileLength,
        .fileClose = unreachableFileClose,
        .fileWritePositional = failingFileWritePositional,
        .fileWriteFileStreaming = noFileWriteFileStreaming,
        .fileWriteFilePositional = noFileWriteFilePositional,
        .fileReadPositional = failingFileReadPositional,
        .fileSeekBy = failingFileSeekBy,
        .fileSeekTo = failingFileSeekTo,
        .fileSync = failingFileSync,
        .fileIsTty = unreachableFileIsTty,
        .fileEnableAnsiEscapeCodes = unreachableFileEnableAnsiEscapeCodes,
        .fileSupportsAnsiEscapeCodes = unreachableFileSupportsAnsiEscapeCodes,
        .fileSetLength = failingFileSetLength,
        .fileSetOwner = failingFileSetOwner,
        .fileSetPermissions = failingFileSetPermissions,
        .fileSetTimestamps = noFileSetTimestamps,
        .fileLock = failingFileLock,
        .fileTryLock = failingFileTryLock,
        .fileUnlock = unreachableFileUnlock,
        .fileDowngradeLock = failingFileDowngradeLock,
        .fileRealPath = failingFileRealPath,
        .fileHardLink = failingFileHardLink,

        .fileMemoryMapCreate = failingFileMemoryMapCreate,
        .fileMemoryMapDestroy = unreachableFileMemoryMapDestroy,
        .fileMemoryMapSetLength = unreachableFileMemoryMapSetLength,
        .fileMemoryMapRead = unreachableFileMemoryMapRead,
        .fileMemoryMapWrite = unreachableFileMemoryMapWrite,

        .processExecutableOpen = failingProcessExecutableOpen,
        .processExecutablePath = failingProcessExecutablePath,
        .lockStderr = unreachableLockStderr,
        .tryLockStderr = noTryLockStderr,
        .unlockStderr = unreachableUnlockStderr,
        .processCurrentPath = failingProcessCurrentPath,
        .processSetCurrentDir = failingProcessSetCurrentDir,
        .processSetCurrentPath = failingProcessSetCurrentPath,
        .processReplace = failingProcessReplace,
        .processReplacePath = failingProcessReplacePath,
        .processSpawn = failingProcessSpawn,
        .processSpawnPath = failingProcessSpawnPath,
        .childWait = unreachableChildWait,
        .childKill = unreachableChildKill,

        .progressParentFile = failingProgressParentFile,

        .random = noRandom,
        .randomSecure = failingRandomSecure,

        .now = noNow,
        .clockResolution = failingClockResolution,
        .sleep = noSleep,

        .netListenIp = failingNetListenIp,
        .netAccept = failingNetAccept,
        .netBindIp = failingNetBindIp,
        .netConnectIp = failingNetConnectIp,
        .netListenUnix = failingNetListenUnix,
        .netConnectUnix = failingNetConnectUnix,
        .netSocketCreatePair = failingNetSocketCreatePair,
        .netSend = failingNetSend,
        .netWrite = failingNetWrite,
        .netWriteFile = failingNetWriteFile,
        .netClose = unreachableNetClose,
        .netShutdown = failingNetShutdown,
        .netInterfaceNameResolve = failingNetInterfaceNameResolve,
        .netInterfaceName = unreachableNetInterfaceName,
        .netLookup = failingNetLookup,
    },
};

pub fn noCrashHandler(userdata: ?*anyopaque) void {
    _ = userdata;
}

pub fn noAsync(userdata: ?*anyopaque, result: []u8, result_alignment: std.mem.Alignment, context: []const u8, context_alignment: std.mem.Alignment, start: *const fn (context: *const anyopaque, result: *anyopaque) void) ?*AnyFuture {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = result_alignment;
    _ = context_alignment;
    start(context.ptr, result.ptr);
    return null;
}

pub fn failingConcurrent(
    userdata: ?*anyopaque,
    result_len: usize,
    result_alignment: std.mem.Alignment,
    context: []const u8,
    context_alignment: std.mem.Alignment,
    start: *const fn (context: *const anyopaque, result: *anyopaque) void,
) ConcurrentError!*AnyFuture {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = result_len;
    _ = result_alignment;
    _ = context;
    _ = context_alignment;
    _ = start;
    return error.ConcurrencyUnavailable;
}

pub fn unreachableAwait(
    userdata: ?*anyopaque,
    any_future: *AnyFuture,
    result: []u8,
    result_alignment: std.mem.Alignment,
) void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = any_future;
    _ = result;
    _ = result_alignment;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn unreachableCancel(
    userdata: ?*anyopaque,
    any_future: *AnyFuture,
    result: []u8,
    result_alignment: std.mem.Alignment,
) void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = any_future;
    _ = result;
    _ = result_alignment;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn noGroupAsync(
    userdata: ?*anyopaque,
    group: *Group,
    context: []const u8,
    context_alignment: std.mem.Alignment,
    start: *const fn (context: *const anyopaque) void,
) void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = group;
    _ = context_alignment;
    start(context.ptr);
}

pub fn failingGroupConcurrent(
    userdata: ?*anyopaque,
    group: *Group,
    context: []const u8,
    context_alignment: std.mem.Alignment,
    start: *const fn (context: *const anyopaque) void,
) ConcurrentError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = group;
    _ = context;
    _ = context_alignment;
    _ = start;
    return error.ConcurrencyUnavailable;
}

pub fn unreachableGroupAwait(userdata: ?*anyopaque, group: *Group, token: *anyopaque) Cancelable!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = group;
    _ = token;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn unreachableGroupCancel(userdata: ?*anyopaque, group: *Group, token: *anyopaque) void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = group;
    _ = token;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn unreachableRecancel(userdata: ?*anyopaque) void {
    _ = userdata;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn unreachableSwapCancelProtection(userdata: ?*anyopaque, new: CancelProtection) CancelProtection {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = new;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn unreachableCheckCancel(userdata: ?*anyopaque) Cancelable!void {
    _ = userdata;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn noFutexWait(userdata: ?*anyopaque, ptr: *const u32, expected: u32, timeout: Timeout) Cancelable!void {
    _ = userdata;
    std.debug.assert(ptr.* == expected or timeout != .none);
}

pub fn noFutexWaitUncancelable(userdata: ?*anyopaque, ptr: *const u32, expected: u32) void {
    _ = userdata;
    std.debug.assert(ptr.* == expected);
}

pub fn noFutexWake(userdata: ?*anyopaque, ptr: *const u32, max_waiters: u32) void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = ptr;
    _ = max_waiters;
    // no-op
}

pub fn failingOperate(userdata: ?*anyopaque, operation: Operation) Cancelable!Operation.Result {
    _ = userdata;
    return switch (operation) {
        .file_read_streaming => .{ .file_read_streaming = error.InputOutput },
        .file_write_streaming => .{ .file_write_streaming = error.InputOutput },
        .device_io_control => unreachable,
        .net_receive => .{ .net_receive = .{ error.NetworkDown, 0 } },
        .net_read => .{ .net_read = error.NetworkDown },
    };
}

pub fn unreachableBatchAwaitAsync(userdata: ?*anyopaque, b: *Batch) Cancelable!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = b;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn unreachableBatchAwaitConcurrent(userdata: ?*anyopaque, b: *Batch, timeout: Timeout) Batch.AwaitConcurrentError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = b;
    _ = timeout;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn unreachableBatchCancel(userdata: ?*anyopaque, b: *Batch) void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = b;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn failingDirCreateDir(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, sub_path: []const u8, permissions: Dir.Permissions) Dir.CreateDirError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    _ = permissions;
    return error.NoSpaceLeft;
}

pub fn failingDirCreateDirPath(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, sub_path: []const u8, permissions: Dir.Permissions) Dir.CreateDirPathError!Dir.CreatePathStatus {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    _ = permissions;
    return error.NoSpaceLeft;
}

pub fn failingDirCreateDirPathOpen(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, sub_path: []const u8, permissions: Dir.Permissions, options: Dir.OpenOptions) Dir.CreateDirPathOpenError!Dir {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    _ = permissions;
    _ = options;
    return error.NoSpaceLeft;
}

pub fn failingDirOpenDir(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, sub_path: []const u8, options: Dir.OpenOptions) Dir.OpenError!Dir {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    _ = options;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingDirStat(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir) Dir.StatError!Dir.Stat {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    return error.Streaming;
}

pub fn failingDirStatFile(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, sub_path: []const u8, options: Dir.StatFileOptions) Dir.StatFileError!File.Stat {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    _ = options;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingDirAccess(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, sub_path: []const u8, options: Dir.AccessOptions) Dir.AccessError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    _ = options;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingDirCreateFile(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, sub_path: []const u8, options: File.CreateFlags) File.OpenError!File {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    _ = options;
    return error.NoSpaceLeft;
}

pub fn failingDirCreateFileAtomic(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, sub_path: []const u8, options: Dir.CreateFileAtomicOptions) Dir.CreateFileAtomicError!File.Atomic {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    _ = options;
    return error.NoSpaceLeft;
}

pub fn failingDirOpenFile(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, sub_path: []const u8, flags: File.OpenFlags) File.OpenError!File {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    _ = flags;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn unreachableDirClose(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dirs: []const Dir) void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dirs;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn noDirRead(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir_reader: *Dir.Reader, buffer: []Dir.Entry) Dir.Reader.Error!usize {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir_reader;
    _ = buffer;
    return 0;
}

pub fn failingDirRealPath(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, out_buffer: []u8) Dir.RealPathError!usize {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = out_buffer;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingDirRealPathFile(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, path_name: []const u8, out_buffer: []u8) Dir.RealPathFileError!usize {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = path_name;
    _ = out_buffer;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingDirDeleteFile(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, sub_path: []const u8) Dir.DeleteFileError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingDirDeleteDir(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, sub_path: []const u8) Dir.DeleteDirError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingDirRename(userdata: ?*anyopaque, old_dir: Dir, old_sub_path: []const u8, new_dir: Dir, new_sub_path: []const u8) Dir.RenameError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = old_dir;
    _ = old_sub_path;
    _ = new_dir;
    _ = new_sub_path;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingDirRenamePreserve(userdata: ?*anyopaque, old_dir: Dir, old_sub_path: []const u8, new_dir: Dir, new_sub_path: []const u8) Dir.RenamePreserveError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = old_dir;
    _ = old_sub_path;
    _ = new_dir;
    _ = new_sub_path;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingDirSymLink(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, target_path: []const u8, sym_link_path: []const u8, flags: Dir.SymLinkFlags) Dir.SymLinkError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = target_path;
    _ = sym_link_path;
    _ = flags;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingDirReadLink(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, sub_path: []const u8, buffer: []u8) Dir.ReadLinkError!usize {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    _ = buffer;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingDirSetOwner(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, owner: ?File.Uid, group: ?File.Gid) Dir.SetOwnerError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = owner;
    _ = group;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingDirSetFileOwner(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: std.Io.Dir, sub_path: []const u8, owner: ?File.Uid, group: ?File.Gid, options: Dir.SetFileOwnerOptions) Dir.SetFileOwnerError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    _ = owner;
    _ = group;
    _ = options;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingDirSetPermissions(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, permissions: Dir.Permissions) Dir.SetPermissionsError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = permissions;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingDirSetFilePermissions(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, sub_path: []const u8, permissions: File.Permissions, options: Dir.SetFilePermissionsOptions) Dir.SetFilePermissionsError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    _ = permissions;
    _ = options;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn noDirSetTimestamps(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, sub_path: []const u8, options: Dir.SetTimestampsOptions) Dir.SetTimestampsError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = sub_path;
    _ = options;
    // no-op
}

pub fn failingDirHardLink(userdata: ?*anyopaque, old_dir: Dir, old_sub_path: []const u8, new_dir: Dir, new_sub_path: []const u8, options: Dir.HardLinkOptions) Dir.HardLinkError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = old_dir;
    _ = old_sub_path;
    _ = new_dir;
    _ = new_sub_path;
    _ = options;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingFileStat(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File) File.StatError!File.Stat {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    return error.Streaming;
}

pub fn failingFileLength(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File) File.LengthError!u64 {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    return error.Streaming;
}

pub fn unreachableFileClose(userdata: ?*anyopaque, files: []const File) void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = files;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn failingFileWritePositional(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, header: []const u8, data: []const []const u8, splat: usize, offset: u64) File.WritePositionalError!usize {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = header;
    _ = offset;
    for (data[0 .. data.len - 1]) |item| {
        if (item.len > 0) return error.BrokenPipe;
    }
    if (data[data.len - 1].len != 0 and splat != 0) return error.BrokenPipe;
    return 0;
}

pub fn noFileWriteFileStreaming(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, header: []const u8, file_reader: *Io.File.Reader, limit: Io.Limit) File.Writer.WriteFileError!usize {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = header;
    _ = file_reader;
    _ = limit;
    return error.Unimplemented;
}

pub fn noFileWriteFilePositional(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, header: []const u8, file_reader: *Io.File.Reader, limit: Io.Limit, offset: u64) File.WriteFilePositionalError!usize {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = header;
    _ = file_reader;
    _ = limit;
    _ = offset;
    return error.Unimplemented;
}

pub fn failingFileReadPositional(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, data: []const []u8, offset: u64) File.ReadPositionalError!usize {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = offset;
    for (data) |item| {
        if (item.len > 0) return error.InputOutput;
    }
    return 0;
}

pub fn failingFileSeekBy(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, relative_offset: i64) File.SeekError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = relative_offset;
    return error.Unseekable;
}

pub fn failingFileSeekTo(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, absolute_offset: u64) File.SeekError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = absolute_offset;
    return error.Unseekable;
}

pub fn failingFileSync(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File) File.SyncError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    return error.NoSpaceLeft;
}

pub fn unreachableFileIsTty(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File) Cancelable!bool {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn unreachableFileEnableAnsiEscapeCodes(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File) File.EnableAnsiEscapeCodesError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn unreachableFileSupportsAnsiEscapeCodes(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File) Cancelable!bool {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn failingFileSetLength(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, length: u64) File.SetLengthError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = length;
    return error.NonResizable;
}

pub fn failingFileSetOwner(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, owner: ?File.Uid, group: ?File.Gid) File.SetOwnerError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = owner;
    _ = group;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingFileSetPermissions(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, permissions: File.Permissions) File.SetPermissionsError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = permissions;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn noFileSetTimestamps(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, options: File.SetTimestampsOptions) File.SetTimestampsError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = options;
    // no-op
}

pub fn failingFileLock(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, lock: File.Lock) File.LockError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = lock;
    return error.FileLocksUnsupported;
}

pub fn failingFileTryLock(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, lock: File.Lock) File.LockError!bool {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = lock;
    return error.FileLocksUnsupported;
}

pub fn unreachableFileUnlock(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File) void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn failingFileDowngradeLock(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File) File.DowngradeLockError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    // no-op
}

pub fn failingFileRealPath(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, out_buffer: []u8) File.RealPathError!usize {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = out_buffer;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingFileHardLink(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, new_dir: Dir, new_sub_path: []const u8, options: File.HardLinkOptions) File.HardLinkError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = new_dir;
    _ = new_sub_path;
    _ = options;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingFileMemoryMapCreate(userdata: ?*anyopaque, file: File, options: File.MemoryMap.CreateOptions) File.MemoryMap.CreateError!File.MemoryMap {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = file;
    _ = options;
    return error.AccessDenied;
}

pub fn unreachableFileMemoryMapDestroy(userdata: ?*anyopaque, mm: *File.MemoryMap) void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = mm;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn unreachableFileMemoryMapSetLength(userdata: ?*anyopaque, mm: *File.MemoryMap, new_len: usize) File.MemoryMap.SetLengthError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = mm;
    _ = new_len;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn unreachableFileMemoryMapRead(userdata: ?*anyopaque, mm: *File.MemoryMap) File.ReadPositionalError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = mm;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn unreachableFileMemoryMapWrite(userdata: ?*anyopaque, mm: *File.MemoryMap) File.WritePositionalError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = mm;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn failingProcessExecutableOpen(userdata: ?*anyopaque, flags: File.OpenFlags) std.process.OpenExecutableError!File {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = flags;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingProcessExecutablePath(userdata: ?*anyopaque, buffer: []u8) std.process.ExecutablePathError!usize {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = buffer;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn unreachableLockStderr(userdata: ?*anyopaque, terminal_mode: ?Terminal.Mode) Cancelable!LockedStderr {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = terminal_mode;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn noTryLockStderr(userdata: ?*anyopaque, terminal_mode: ?Terminal.Mode) Cancelable!?LockedStderr {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = terminal_mode;
    return null;
}

pub fn unreachableUnlockStderr(userdata: ?*anyopaque) void {
    _ = userdata;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn failingProcessCurrentPath(userdata: ?*anyopaque, buffer: []u8) std.process.CurrentPathError!usize {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = buffer;
    return error.CurrentDirUnlinked;
}

pub fn failingProcessSetCurrentDir(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir) std.process.SetCurrentDirError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingProcessSetCurrentPath(userdata: ?*anyopaque, path: []const u8) std.process.SetCurrentPathError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = path;
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

pub fn failingProcessReplace(userdata: ?*anyopaque, options: std.process.ReplaceOptions) std.process.ReplaceError {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = options;
    return error.OperationUnsupported;
}

pub fn failingProcessReplacePath(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, options: std.process.ReplaceOptions) std.process.ReplaceError {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = options;
    return error.OperationUnsupported;
}

pub fn failingProcessSpawn(userdata: ?*anyopaque, options: std.process.SpawnOptions) std.process.SpawnError!std.process.Child {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = options;
    return error.OperationUnsupported;
}

pub fn failingProcessSpawnPath(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dir: Dir, options: std.process.SpawnOptions) std.process.SpawnError!std.process.Child {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dir;
    _ = options;
    return error.OperationUnsupported;
}

pub fn unreachableChildWait(userdata: ?*anyopaque, child: *std.process.Child) std.process.Child.WaitError!std.process.Child.Term {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = child;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn unreachableChildKill(userdata: ?*anyopaque, child: *std.process.Child) void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = child;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn failingProgressParentFile(userdata: ?*anyopaque) std.Progress.ParentFileError!File {
    _ = userdata;
    return error.UnsupportedOperation;
}

pub fn noRandom(userdata: ?*anyopaque, buffer: []u8) void {
    _ = userdata;
    @memset(buffer, 0);
}

pub fn failingRandomSecure(userdata: ?*anyopaque, buffer: []u8) RandomSecureError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = buffer;
    return error.EntropyUnavailable;
}

pub fn noNow(userdata: ?*anyopaque, clock: Clock) Timestamp {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = clock;
    return .zero;
}

pub fn failingClockResolution(userdata: ?*anyopaque, clock: Clock) Clock.ResolutionError!Duration {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = clock;
    return error.ClockUnavailable;
}

pub fn noSleep(userdata: ?*anyopaque, clock: Timeout) Cancelable!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = clock;
}

pub fn failingNetListenIp(userdata: ?*anyopaque, address: *const net.IpAddress, options: net.IpAddress.ListenOptions) net.IpAddress.ListenError!net.Socket {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = address;
    _ = options;
    return error.NetworkDown;
}

pub fn failingNetAccept(userdata: ?*anyopaque, listen_fd: net.Socket.Handle, options: net.Server.AcceptOptions) net.Server.AcceptError!net.Socket {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = listen_fd;
    _ = options;
    return error.NetworkDown;
}

pub fn failingNetBindIp(userdata: ?*anyopaque, address: *const net.IpAddress, options: net.IpAddress.BindOptions) net.IpAddress.BindError!net.Socket {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = address;
    _ = options;
    return error.NetworkDown;
}

pub fn failingNetConnectIp(userdata: ?*anyopaque, address: *const net.IpAddress, options: net.IpAddress.ConnectOptions) net.IpAddress.ConnectError!net.Socket {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = address;
    _ = options;
    return error.NetworkDown;
}

pub fn failingNetListenUnix(userdata: ?*anyopaque, address: *const net.UnixAddress, options: net.UnixAddress.ListenOptions) net.UnixAddress.ListenError!net.Socket.Handle {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = address;
    _ = options;
    return error.NetworkDown;
}

pub fn failingNetConnectUnix(userdata: ?*anyopaque, address: *const net.UnixAddress) net.UnixAddress.ConnectError!net.Socket.Handle {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = address;
    return error.NetworkDown;
}

pub fn failingNetSocketCreatePair(userdata: ?*anyopaque, options: net.Socket.CreatePairOptions) net.Socket.CreatePairError![2]net.Socket {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = options;
    return error.OperationUnsupported;
}

pub fn failingNetSend(userdata: ?*anyopaque, handle: net.Socket.Handle, messages: []net.OutgoingMessage, flags: net.SendFlags) struct { ?net.Socket.SendError, usize } {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = handle;
    _ = messages;
    _ = flags;
    return .{ error.NetworkDown, 0 };
}

pub fn failingNetWrite(userdata: ?*anyopaque, dest: net.Socket.Handle, header: []const u8, data: []const []const u8, splat: usize) net.Stream.Writer.Error!usize {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = dest;
    _ = header;
    _ = data;
    _ = splat;
    return error.NetworkDown;
}

pub fn failingNetWriteFile(userdata: ?*anyopaque, handle: net.Socket.Handle, header: []const u8, file_reader: *Io.File.Reader, limit: Io.Limit) net.Stream.Writer.WriteFileError!usize {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = handle;
    _ = header;
    _ = file_reader;
    _ = limit;
    return error.NetworkDown;
}

pub fn unreachableNetClose(userdata: ?*anyopaque, handle: []const net.Socket.Handle) void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = handle;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn failingNetShutdown(userdata: ?*anyopaque, handle: net.Socket.Handle, how: net.ShutdownHow) net.ShutdownError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = handle;
    _ = how;
    return error.NetworkDown;
}

pub fn failingNetInterfaceNameResolve(userdata: ?*anyopaque, name: *const net.Interface.Name) net.Interface.Name.ResolveError!net.Interface {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = name;
    return error.InterfaceNotFound;
}

pub fn unreachableNetInterfaceName(userdata: ?*anyopaque, interface: net.Interface) net.Interface.NameError!net.Interface.Name {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = interface;
    unreachable;
}

pub fn failingNetLookup(userdata: ?*anyopaque, host_name: net.HostName, resolved: *Queue(net.HostName.LookupResult), options: net.HostName.LookupOptions) net.HostName.LookupError!void {
    _ = userdata;
    _ = host_name;
    _ = resolved;
    _ = options;
    return error.NetworkDown;
}

test failing {
    const f: Io = .failing;
    // file stuff
    try std.testing.expectError(error.NoSpaceLeft, Dir.createDir(.cwd(), f, "test", .default_dir));
    try std.testing.expectError(error.NoSpaceLeft, Dir.createFile(.cwd(), f, "test", .{}));
    try std.testing.expectError(error.FileNotFound, Dir.openDir(.cwd(), f, "test", .{}));
    try std.testing.expectError(error.FileNotFound, Dir.openFile(.cwd(), f, "test", .{}));
    try File.writeStreamingAll(.stdout(), f, &.{});
    try std.testing.expectError(error.AccessDenied, File.MemoryMap.create(f, .stdout(), .{ .len = 0 }));
    // async stuff
    const closure = struct {
        var foo: usize = 0;
        fn doOp() void {
            foo = 4;
        }
    };
    var future = f.async(closure.doOp, .{});
    _ = future.await(f);
    try std.testing.expect(closure.foo == 4);
    // random stuff
    var buffer: [1]u8 = undefined;
    f.random(&buffer);
    try std.testing.expect(buffer[0] == 0);
}